The Khoikhoi People of South Africa
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The Khoikhoi People of South Africa
Introduction
The word “Khoikhoi or ‘Khoi’ spelled as Khoekhoe is loosely translated to mean men of men. The Khoikhoi represent a historical division of the larger Khoisan ethnic group of the South westerns in Africa that are closely related to the San. The Khoikhoi have resided in Southern Africa in the fifth century. At the time of the arrival of European settlers, they practiced pastoral agriculture at a large scale in the Cape region. The Europeans referred to the Khoikhoi as Hottentots which is an Imitation of the clicking sound they made as they spoke in their local dialect. Worth noting, this term is considered offensive today hence it is rarely used. Factors including disease, racial discrimination, loss of land, and disease taking place during apartheid disrupted the Khoikhoi’s pastrolistic way of life and hence they were unable to continue living as traditional nomads (Hochstrasser, 2016). The Nama forms the largest Khoikhoi group that is remaining today. They secured a section of their homeland in Richtersveld National Park and here, they have managed to maintain their lifestyle. The lineage pride is slowly returning along with the recognition of their identity. Notably, they are finding a place in a world that values and accepts traditional lifestyles while continuing their technological advances that benefit all. The purpose of this text is to point out the obvious; that pre-colonial South Africa had a great civilization, culture, and economic system before the arrival of the Europeans. Further, the text explains how Europeans are to blame for the disappearance of African history and the struggle for development throughout the African continent.
History
Originally, the Khoikhoi formed part of a pastoral language and culture found in Southern Africa. They originated from the northern area of modern-day Bostwana. They steadily moved towards the south until they reached the Cape. This is approximately 2000 years ago. The Khoikhoi have various subgroups including the Namaqua of the west, the Khoikhoi of the south and the Korana of mid-south Africa. Since the Khoikhoi practiced husbandry of goats, cattle, and sheep, they had access to a balanced and stable diet that allowed the Khoikhoi to live in big groups (Philip, 1828). This was not the case with the San, the original inhabitants of the region. They grazed herds in the fertile sections of the valley in the region until the third century when Bantus managed to encroach their initial and traditional homeland. As a result, the Khoikhoi had to retreat for a long time in the areas that were more arid. Worth noting, the Khoikhoi bands that intermarried with San migrated and today live in what is called Cape Town, a city in South Africa. However, the groups have managed to remain culturally distinct; the Khoikhoi still graze livestock while the San have become hunters and gatherers. The Khoikhoi first encountered European merchants and explorers in the fifteenth century. Despite efforts made by the British to develop and maintain amicable relationships, the Khoikhoi still encountered violent experiences. The population of the local people declined significantly when the Europeans exposed the Khoikhoi to smallpox. Active warfare and resistance were encountered after the Dutch East India Company decided to used grazing land for farming. In the centuries that followed, the Khoikhoi were driven steadily off their land which marked the end of the traditional life that the Khoikhoi led.
Khoikhoi’s social organization became deeply damaged and in the end, it was destroyed by land seizures and expansion of white colonialists taking place from the late seventeenth century moving onwards. With the collapse of their social structures, some KhoiKhoi people decided to settle in farms while some became farmworkers or bondsmen. Others were integrated into already existing family groups and clans of the Xhosa people. In the 1920s, diamonds were discovered at the mouth of the Orange River. As a result, prospectors decided to relocate into the region and established a town at Port Nolloth and Alexander Bay. This move improved the appropriation of traditional lands which was encountered during the colonial period. Under the apartheid policy, the pastoralists that remained behind were encouraged to leave their traditional lifestyle and adopt a village life. Worth noting, Khoikhoi women were displayed publicly in Europe following the assumption of sexual powers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Charles White, a racial scientist, in his book Regular Gradations of Man written in 1799, made claims that black people were halfway apes and whites in the chain of being. Charles used the example of Khoikhoi women to demonstrate the supposed primal-like sexuality of people of color.
Khoikhoi Culture
The Khoikhoi had religious mythology that gave special significance to the moon, which is likely to be viewed as the physical demonstration of a supreme being linked to heaven. They believed that Tsui’goab is their creator and health guardian. Further, they believed in Gunab an evil being that causes death or sickness. Generally, the Khoikhoi practiced a policy where land was owned by everyone, that is, communal land ownership. In the Nama culture, a sub-section of the Khoikhoi people poetry, storytelling, and music were of importance. Further, many stories were passed down to generations using the word of mouth. The Nama culture is rich in the literal and musical abilities of its people. Traditional folk tales and music, praise poetry, and nomads have been passed down to generations. They provide a base for their culture. Further, the Khoikhoi are known for their crafts that include skin karosses, leatherwork, matte jewelry, musical instruments, tortoiseshell powder containers, and clay pots. Today, the women from the Nama group still wear Victorian traditional fashion. The style of dressing was introduced in the 1800s by missionaries and their influence is still present in the Nama culture existent today.
Khoikhoi Religious Mythology about God and Heroes
Khoikhoi believed in a supreme being called Tsui-Goab. They believe that Tsui-Goab created humankind, the world, and all elements in it. Further, they maintain he is the source of happiness and health. He resides in heaven above the stars, as the god of the sky. They believed that he created clouds, lived in them, and brought the rain. Further, the Khoikhoi believed that heaven, where their creator resides, is beautiful, full of sunshine and light. Notably, the Khoikhoi always pray every morning while facing the east where the first light of their creator first appears. Moreover, they believe in Guanab, the god of evil. They further believe in U-tixo, a legendary and powerful chief who was also a powerful sorcerer in the Khoikhoi community. He is believed to have made war and killed Guanab, a powerful chief that had killed many Khoikhoi people. In the final fight, U-tixo won after Guanab landed his last blow on U-tixo knee. From that day people regarded U-tixo as Tsui-Goub which means wounded knee. He is regarded as extraordinarily powerful and after his death, he was invoked as one who could bring protection and help. With time he was even regarded as God. In an alternative version, Tsui Goab was not regarded as a man at all and was believed to have made the first woman and man from a rock. The Khoikhoi also believed in Heitsi, a famous hero who was an offspring of magical grass and a cow. He was regarded as a warrior, hunter, and sorcerer that killed Ga-gorib. He was a figure of life, death, and rebirth as a result of the number of occasions he has died and resurrected. Worth noting, cairns from his funeral are today found in various parts of Southern Africa and is regarded and worshipped as the hunting god.
The Economic System of the Khoikhoi
The Culture of Hunting and Herding
Archeological excavations undertaken reveal that hunting and herding were the main sources of livelihood. The Khoikhoi gathered meat, hunted, and herded for their daily nourishment. Bones of cattle, seals, and sheep dating as early as 2,000 years reveal that there was coexistence between hunting and herding. According to Professor Andrew Smith from the Department of Archeology at the University of Cape Town, whenever herders lost their stock from drought or theft, they could always bounce back to hunting as a backup plan and after recouping the losses, they could return to hunting and gathering (Viljoen, 2001). Further, the Khoikhoi were driven by their pursuit of water and pasture for their animals hence their pastrolistic way of life. They kept enormous herds of long-horned, fat-tailed goats and cows. They used their livestock mainly for milk and only slaughtered them in ritual celebrations. Worth noting, it was considered a custom for men that did not have livestock to work as servants for the people that had livestock. In return for taking care of the animals, the servants would have free access to milk. It was seen as a form of payment and at times they received small amounts of livestock as payment.
Growing Crops
In the Khoikhoi community, livestock such as goats, sheep, and goats were seen as a sign of wealth. The Khoikhoi that used the land to farm and make a living were considered to be of a higher socioeconomic status than those without livestock who were considered of a lower socioeconomic status. The farmers, often regarded as bushmen did not receive respect or recognition in the Khoikhoi society because they were not regarded as successful people. The SOS Villages Worldwide maintains that a major section of the Khoikhoi population relied on agriculture as a source of livelihood particularly sheep and cattle. Since they used the cattle for milk, a balanced was equally important. They used techniques such as cattle count and breeding to ensure a balanced diet.
Lifestyle
The European colonization, the Khoikhoi community was driven to the west and northern areas of South Africa. In these areas, the land was less productive hence forcing them to become laborers. Their nomadic lifestyle changed to become more of a settled experience as the former tribal chiefs ended up becoming village leaders. Today, although some Khoikhoi people have maintained their pastrolistic lifestyle, keeping livestock is more dominant than hunting. The chief control the nomadic tribes that occupied the territory. Cattle remain to be the main source of food and the primary foundation of trade. Prestige and wealth distinction were attributed to the number of cattle a person possessed.
The Khoikhoi Society and Language
The Khoikhoi society often consisted of the poor, rich, and animals. Animals were viewed as a sign of wealth because they provided transport, food, and clothing. The wealthy people in the Khoikhoi community were considered important and they shared products including milk with less advantaged members of the society. Further, they rubbed animal oil all over their body a symbol of wealth. The Khoisan language is characterized by click or implosive consonants linked with the language of Bantu speakers. The Khoikhoi used dialects that are closely related but belonging to the same language. Nama, previously referred to as Hottentot is the most widespread and populous language of the Khoikhoi. It is categorized in the Khloe language is widely spoken by the Namaqua. Haiom, and the Damara of South Africa.
The Resettlement of the Khoikhoi in Kat River and Cape Colony
The Khoikhoi that had remained by the early 1800s became victims of restricted civil rights and discriminatory land ownership practices. With this pretext, Andries Stockenstorm, the Commissioner of the Eastern Districts facilitated the creation of Kat River, a resettlement scheme located near the frontier of the Cape Colony. The initial motive was to create a buffer zone on the frontier, but the far-reaching fertile land in the area made it possible for people to own land and build communities peacefully. The settlements expanded and thrived and the Kat river became a successful and region along the came which substituted more autonomously. Initially, it was predominantly occupied by Africans that spoke Gonakua but it began attracting other diverse groups of people. At the time the Khoikhoi were known to be very good marksmen and were invaluable allies during the frontier wards. During the Seventh Frontier Wars, the Khoikhoi stood out under the leadership of Andries Botha. Notably, at the time, there existed harsh laws that encouraged the Khoikhoi to leave their land in the river region and work as laborers in the farms of white people. The settlement grew and exploded in 1850. The Xhosa rebelled against the government and the Khoikhoi joined the rebellion for the first time. After the rebellion was defeated, the Cape Colony became a representative of the government. The new government endeavored to give Khoikhoi people political rights to caution them from future racial discontent. William Porter, an attorney general, noted that he would rather meet with a Hottentot at the polling station voting for a representative rather than meeting him with a shoulder on his gun (Elphick, 1977). As such, the government took a step to enact the Cape franchise that decreed all citizens regardless of color had the right to vote and vie for political seats. The non-racial principle however did not hold for long because as it was later eroded by literacy tests and abolished by the apartheid government.
Conclusion
The word “Khoikhoi means men of men and represents a historical division of the larger Khoisan ethnic group of the South westerns in Africa that are closely related to the San. They originated from the northern area of modern-day Bostwana. They steadily moved towards the south until they reached the Cape. They believed that Tsui’goab is their creator and health guardian. Further, they believed in Gunab an evil being that causes death or sickness. They practiced communal ownership of land. Further, the Khoikhoi were driven by their pursuit of water and pasture for their animals hence their pastrolistic way of life. They kept enormous herds of long-horned, fat-tailed goats and cows. They used their livestock mainly for milk and only slaughtered them in ritual celebrations.
References
Elphick, R. (1977). Kraal and Castle: Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa. Yale University Press.
Hochstrasser, J. B. (2016). A South African mystery: Remarkable studies of the Khoikhoi. Netherlands Yearbook for History of Art/Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek Online, 66(1), 196-231.
Philip, J. (1828). Researches in South Africa: Illustrating the Civil, Moral, and Religious Condition of the Native Tribes: Including Journals of the Author’s Travels in the Interior; Together with Detailed Accounts of the Progress of the Christian Missions, Exhibiting the Influence of Christianity in Promoting Civilization (Vol. 2). James Duncan.
Viljoen, R. (2001). Aboriginal Khoikhoi servants and their masters in colonial Swellendam, South Africa, 1745-1795. Agricultural History, 75(1), 28-51.
