Social Work Assignment
Name of the Student
Name of the Institution
Table of Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491412” Part 1: Factors Influencing the Wellbeing of Individuals with Autism PAGEREF _Toc393491412 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491413” Theoretical perspectives on needs PAGEREF _Toc393491413 h 4
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491414” Cognitive theories of learning PAGEREF _Toc393491414 h 4
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491415” Social Motivation Theory PAGEREF _Toc393491415 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491416” Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc393491416 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491417” Part 2: Inequalities in Health PAGEREF _Toc393491417 h 11
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491418” 2.1 Causes of Social Inequalities in Health PAGEREF _Toc393491418 h 12
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491419” How social workers can address Inequalities in Health PAGEREF _Toc393491419 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491420” Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc393491420 h 17
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491421” Part 3: Capacity of Policy and Practice in Challenging Stigma and Discrimination PAGEREF _Toc393491421 h 18
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491422” Stigma and Discrimination facing Disabled Persons PAGEREF _Toc393491422 h 19
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491423” Polices addressing Stigma and Discrimination in the UK PAGEREF _Toc393491423 h 20
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491424” Policies of Social Work and Disability Programs Addressing Disabilities in the UK PAGEREF _Toc393491424 h 21
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491425” Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc393491425 h 24
HYPERLINK l “_Toc393491426” References PAGEREF _Toc393491426 h 26
Part 1: Factors Influencing the Wellbeing of Individuals with AutismAutism is a developmental disability that affects the normal development of the human brain, and eventually affects an individual’s ability to effectively communicate and to interact with other people, as well as their environment. Also known as Autism spectrum disorder, autism affects a person ability to understand what they see, hear or sense. The condition begins at birth or within the first two to three years of life. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is considered one of the Pervasive Developmental Disorders (Buron, 2008, p. 21). Prior to the mid 20th century, autism was a rare condition. The first case of autism was identified by child psychologists at John Hopkins Hospital in 1950s. Since then, cases of autism have been increasing over time. In fact, cases of autism during the last one and half decades have been increasing at a rapid rate. The data released by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2009 by 2009 indicated that 1 out of 110 of all children born was diagnosed with ASD in the world (Dodd, 2010, p. 12). Recent surveys also indicated that four times as many males are diagnosed with ASD as compared to females. There is not specific cure for autism. However, there are various interventions that can help to improve the overall wellbeing of individuals on the spectrum. The current section examines the perspective of the psychological and sociological theories on the interventions that should be provided to individuals with autism to support their wellbeing.
Theoretical perspectives on needs
Cognitive theories of learning
The behaviors of individuals with autism and the needs that influence their overall wellbeing are comprehensively explained by the cognitive theories of learning. There are four main social cognitive theories that explain the differences between individuals with autism and normal persons, namely, the theory of mind, the extreme male brain theory, the central coherence theory and social cognitive theory. The theory of mind, established by Simon Baron-Cohen in 1995, posits that individuals with autism have a condition called ‘mindblindness.’ According to the theory, the individuals with autism are unable to intuit what other people are intending, perceiving or thinking. In other words, their minds are blind and are unable to read minds of others (Benjafield, 2008, p. 248).
Simon Baron-Cohen later in 2002 expanded the theory of mind to form the extreme male brain theory (Whitcomb & Merrell, 2013, p. 46). The theory posits that the brains of males are different from those of females; males have ‘empathizing brains,’ whereas the males have ‘systemizing brains.’ According to Baron-Cohen, the term ‘empathizing’ refers to the ability of an individual to understand the thoughts and emotions of another person and to respond to them in an appropriate manner. As such, empathizing enables an individual to predict the behaviors of another person and take care about how he/she feels. On the other hand, systemizing refers to the drive to analyze variables embedded in the system and to understand the rules that govern human behavior (Whitcomb & Merrell, 2013, p. 46). Systemizing enables individuals to understand the behaviors portrayed by individuals as a result of system influences. In other words, systemizing focuses on understanding the behaviors of the system and not individuals.
According to Baron-Cohen, a balanced person possesses equal measures of empathizing and systemizing abilities. However, the average man leans more on the side of systemizing, while the average woman leans more on the side of empathizing. According to Baron-Cohen, individuals with autism lack the empathizing abilities completely. As such, they do not have ability to read the behaviors of others through perception, intentions, word emotions and actions, body language and expressions (Tarkington & Anan, 2007, p. 141). However, individuals with autism have incredible systemizing abilities. As such, Baron-Cohen explains that they have ‘ extreme male brain.’ Consequently, they are usually good in evaluating non-human systems. For instance, they are good in evaluating objects, scientific phenomena and machines. In fact, they have ability to predict changes in non-human systems. However, the ability varies depending on the level of disability. The fact that they are systemizing abilities and they lack emphasizing abilities explains the reason they tend to be obsessed to objects. Also, this explains the fact that most of them are resistant to change (Simpson, 2007, p. 37). Most of them are preoccupied with interests, routines and objects. A slight change in environment may cause a lot of distress to an individual with autism.
The central coherence theory, initially developed by Uta Frith in 1989, tries to explain the reason some of the individuals with autism have exceptional abilities. Frith noted that some individuals with autism have exceptional abilities such as making calculations, memory and music. People with such abilities tend to give deep focus to details, and thus, they are able to pick every little element pertaining to the subject matter of study (Whitcomb & Merrell, 2013, p. 47). However, when additional details from areas or subjects that they are not gifted, they become confused and the performance goes down.
Social cognitive theory, on the other hand, is a learning theory that suggests that individuals learn by observing others. Social cognitive theory focuses on how people are affected by the behaviors of others. The theory was developed by Albert Bandura, a Canadian psychologist (Rogers & Dawson, 2009, p. 68). While the proponents of the theory agree that the environment in which an individual grows influences his/her behavior, they argue that individual’s personality is equally important. There are five key concepts that are described in the social cognitive theory, namely, observational learning/modeling, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, self-efficacy and self-regulation.
The concept of observational learning or modeling posits that individuals learn from others within social contexts. For instance, a student learns how to behave by observing the behaviors of teachers, parents and peers. The teachers, parents and peers act as models to the student. An individual can learn from others either directly from live demonstrations or indirectly by observing the non-verbal, verbal and written behaviors of the models (Cervone & Pervin, 2013, p. 357). The concept of outcome expectation suggests that the consequences of behavior influences whether the behavior will be repeated or not. Depending on whether the outcomes are positive or negative, an individual may decide whether to repeat the behavior or not. Motivation to repeat a particular behavior is important since it influences whether the behavior will be successfully learnt or not (Powell, & Powell, 2010, p. 129). According to Powell and Powell (2010, p. 129), individuals with autism can learn effectively through observational learning, especially in cases they are attracted to specific behaviors. Also, they learn behaviors through practicing them repeatedly. However, they often require motivation to engage in certain behaviors initially.
The concept of self-efficacy suggests that an individual’s self-efficacy influences his/her ability to learn a particular behavior. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he/she can learn a particular skill or not. Generally, individuals become highly motivated, more active, pay attention and become better learners when they believe that they have ability to master a particular skill or behavior (Carducci, 2009, p. 97). Goal setting is another core concept in the social cognitive theory framework. Goals refer to future desired outcomes that are embedded in an individual’s cognitive framework. Models can provide an individual with instructions that can help in formulating effective goals which can facilitate effective learning (Carducci, 2009, p. 97). Lastly, the concept of self-regulation suggests that individuals can control and evaluate their own learning behaviors. The concept posits that depending on goal setting, individuals can manage their own thoughts and actions in order to achieve desired outcomes. The attitudes and beliefs that influence an individual’s motivation for self-regulation and the skills that are needed to effectively manage behavior can be obtained through modeling (Carducci, 2009, p. 97). As Carducci (2009, p. 97) explains, individuals with autism often have a low level of self-efficacy. In other words, they do not understand their abilities and hardly set goals. However, as Carducci (2009, p. 97) argues, the individuals with autism have ability to develop self-efficacy through guidance and support. They can be assisted to set goals and with additional support, they can meet them. They can also learn to regulate their behaviors.
In short, the three cognitive theories try to explain the behaviors of the individuals on the autism spectrum. In addition, they give an understanding of how the individuals with autism should be assisted in order to perform optimally. In fact, the cognitive theory suggests that, if provided with the necessary assistance, some of the individuals on the spectrum can perform like the typical individuals. In some cases, they can even perform better, especially in areas where they have exceptional abilities. The cognitive theories of learning and development propose that engaging in physical activities can help individuals on the autism spectrum disorder develop and maintain physical wellbeing. Further, the cognitive theories propose that the psychological support can help to enhance the mental wellbeing of individuals with autism (McClannahan, MacDuff, & Krantz, 2002, p. 11). Psychological support can be provided through counseling.
Social Motivation Theory
The social motivation theory of autism is based on the works of Dawson and other sociologists. The theory tries to explain the effects, the special needs of individuals with autism and the suitable intervention approaches. The theory posits that most of the behavioral complications of individuals with autism stem from childhood. Precisely, the theory posits that individuals with autism have many deficits with they were not born with. According to Dawson, such individuals have impairments in imitation, affective sharing, emotional perception, joint perception and social orienting (Dawson & Zanolli, 2003, p. 271). The theory of social motivation suggests that individuals on the spectrum develop such impairments due to inability to interact effectively with other people during the early stages of growth and development.
Young children with autism usually fail to orient effectively to social stimuli. For instance, they often fail to orient to human sounds such as calling names and clapping. Also, they fail to distinguish and to prefer to human or non-human speech. Dawson suggests that such problems mainly occur due to the impact of autism on the ability of individuals to shift attention between different modalities and stimuli. The theory posits that autism affects the ability to rapidly shift attention between different modalities and stimuli (Dawson & Zanolli, 2003, p. 271). Dawson and colleagues argue that the inability to do so is mainly influenced by lack of motivation, as a result of abnormalities in neural systems. However, Dawson and colleagues argue that the ability to shift attention between different modalities and stimuli in individuals with autism can be enhanced through continuous motivation during the early years of development. In other words, acknowledging the special needs of the individuals with autism and trying to encourage them to be involved in social interaction contexts as early as possible in life can help to curb most of the deficits that they have. The needs and intervention strategies to enhance the wellbeing of the individuals with autism are explained in the next section (Dawson & Zanolli, 2003, p. 271).
The social motivation theorists acknowledge the significant role of early intervention in enhancing the wellbeing of individuals with autism. The process of training and educating individuals with autism is highly effective when started in early childhood. Individuals with autism are likely to respond to training more easily at earlier ages than when they become adults. According to McClannahan et al. (2002, p. 15), children with autism need to be assisted to develop a better understanding of their environment, enhance their social and communication skills, and develop the required career and personal planning for their future.
Both the cognitive and the social motivation theories agree that the level of social interaction skills and social support can help to enhance, restore or maintain emotional and social wellbeing of the individuals with autism. Secondly, the theories propose that enhancing communication skill of individuals with autism can help to enhance their interactional skills, as well as ability to learn and to work. In turn, this can help to enhance the social, financial and physical wellbeing of the individuals with autism (Gabriels, & Hill, 2007, p. 97). The cognitive and social motivation theorists acknowledge the importance of basic needs and finances in supporting the wellbeing of individuals with autism.
ConclusionIn conclusion the problem of autism has attracted the attention of both the psychologists and the sociologists. Cognitive and social motivation theorists have tried to explain the effects of autism to an individual, and the factors that affect the wellbeing of individuals on the spectrum during lifetime. Sociologists and psychologists have found that autism affects three main areas of development, namely, communication, behavior and social interactions. Theories established by psychologists and sociologists try to explain the intervention strategies that should be adopted in order to improve the ability of the individuals in the aforementioned areas, or to maintain their wellbeing during the lifetime. Among the factors that affect the wellbeing of persons with autism proposed by the theorists are physical therapy, medical therapy, early intervention, communication therapy, psychological therapy, ability to work, level of access to basic needs and financial support and level of social interaction and social support.
Part 2: Inequalities in HealthThe inequalities in the distribution and access to health are determined by a variety of complex factors. As Bartley and Blane (2008, p. 2) explain, the inequalities do not arise by chance. Rather, they are influenced by the social, economic, environmental and individual factors. The social, economic and environmental factors are referred to as social determinants of health. The diagram below gives a summary of the social determinants of health. INCLUDEPICTURE “http://www.publichealth.ie/files/image/image2-whatcausesHI.jpg” * MERGEFORMATINET
Source: Bartley and Blane (2008, p. 3)
In the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) has, for more than half a century, been working to reduce inequalities in health through supporting integrated and comprehensive healthcare services for all. However, NHS has not been able to meet the goal fully, as there are still significant inequalities in access to quality health services between different demographic segments within the UK. Lack of adequate resources to curb the inequality, and the ever-increasing demand and cost for health services have been cited as some of the factors that limit the ability for the NHS to eliminate the inequality in access to health in the UK. However, there are some persistent fundamental social factors that lead to the inequalities. The current section presents a critical discussion of the social causes of inequalities in health in the UK. As well, the section gives a critical analysis of the approaches that social workers can use to address the problem.
2.1 Causes of Social Inequalities in HealthAlthough there are other factors that lead to unequal distribution and access to health within a given community, social factors are perceived as having the greatest impacts. Social class or the gap between the rich and the poor is one of the main social factors that affect the distribution and access to health in the UK. The social class factors that lead to inequalities in health include employment, education and access to housing, water, food and Income.
Employment
Employment influences access to health services. In many cases, people who have long-term employment contracts have health insurance, and are usually able to access health services without struggle. Their health services are paid for by the employers. In many cases, employers pay health insurance for their workers (Goddard & Smith, 2001, p. 1152). On the other hand, people who are not employed, or do casual jobs may not have similar access to health services. Also, the kind of job that an individual does determines his or her overall health. Some jobs involve health hazards that end up damaging an individual’s organs. A good example is a job that involves cement manufacturing. Some of the workers in such a job have direct contact with the processes that involve mixing chemicals and thus, they inhale them, especially if they do not have good protection. On the other hand, some jobs, such as office secretary involve less exposure to health hazards that may have a huge impact on health. Lack of employment, on the other hand, leads to lack funds needed to access good adequate health services (Goddard & Smith, 2001, p. 1153). In the UK, the problem often faces individuals with limited opportunities for getting employment, such as persons with disabilities. However, some scholars have argued that lack of employment in the UK does not significantly contribute to health inequalities due to the fact that the government, through agencies such as NHS, has invested heavily in enhancing free quality health services for all (Bartley & Blane, 2008, p. 17). Despite this, many scholars agree that the problem of unequal access to health as a result of working conditions has not yet been solved.
Education
Unequal access to education prevents equal access to health services. Education teaches people how to behave in order to maintain good health. For instance, educated persons are often aware of the benefits of recreation on health. As McGill-Franzen (2009, p. 75) explains, recreation is a very helpful tool in enhancing the health of all people. In the UK, there has been a rise in enrollment in higher education by a wider section of the population. Individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds are increasingly able to access higher education. In short, the central government and the local authorities have added significant efforts to support education. The positive trends have a positive impact on reduction of health inequalities. However, as Bartley & Blane (2008, p. 12), some scholars have expressed concerns that education enhancement in the UK no-longer contributes to the reduction in inequalities in health. The scholars argue that the literacy rate in the UK is already high and many people have background information about health. Therefore, the scholars argue that there is no certainty that enhancement of education will lead to more improvements in access to healthcare. Despite this, many scholars agree that level of education within a country influences access to healthcare.
Access to housing, water and food
Access to housing, water and food influences the health of individuals. At the same time, access to income determines the ability of individuals to access basic needs and health services. People with limited access to the key human basic needs have poor health. They are likely to get health problems or diseases that are caused by malnutrition and related problems. In addition, access to contaminated food and water may also lead to poor health. For instance, damp housing is associated with increased rates of respiratory diseases among children in many parts of the world (McGill-Franzen (2009, p. 54).
Unlike normal individuals, persons with disabilities require additional support to access basic needs. Many of them are unable to acquire basic needs on their own, and they depend on the support of the family members (Matson, 2008, p. 78). In some case, families of persons with disabilities are disadvantaged and lack ability to provide all the basic needs to the individuals with disabilities during the lifetime. In cases where the individuals with disabilities lack adequate support for food and housing, for instance, their overall health may be significantly affected. Further, many individuals with disabilities require a lot in terms of financial resources for the purpose of treatment and therapy services (Matson, 2008, p. 78). Parents or guardians of children with disabilities who cannot afford the finances to take their children to special schools and to pay for treatment and therapy services may encounter numerous problems. In such cases, the individuals with disabilities may not benefit psychologically, socially and physically. On the other hand, availability of basic needs and financial support may enhance the overall wellbeing of individuals with disabilities to the extent that they perform just like normal individuals.
However, as Goddard & Smith (2001, p 121) explain, the overall impact of living standards on health can only be understood when examined over a life time. While many scholars agree that access to basic needs affect access to health, others argue that the supporting arguments are based on simple materialistic model that is not sufficient. As such, they argue that the argument ignores the state contribution to the fight against inequalities. Bartley and Blane (2008, p. 14), for instance, explains that the UK government tries to eliminate inequalities in health through providing the disadvantaged groups with adequate material support, which makes factors such as poor housing and diet unlikely to contribute significantly to the health inequalities. As well, recent research indicates that social class contributes only a third of the inequalities in health.
How social workers can address Inequalities in HealthThere are various ways in which social workers can address the problem of inequality in health. Efforts to address the problem should be focused on the environmental, economic and social conditions that affect access to health. The efforts of social workers should be applied in all settings, and not just in hospitals and other healthcare centers. One of the areas where social workers can contribute is through research (Marmot, 2004, p. 47). Social workers are, in most cases, in direct contact with the general public, and thus, they have a good chance of assessing the factors that contribute to health inequality. In addition, they can also help in assessing the impact of government interventions in reducing inequalities in health. The information can be useful to the national health planners in making appropriate strategies for reducing inequalities in health. In the UK, social workers are already assisting in recording data regarding health inequalities (Marmot Review Team, 2010). However, their contribution in measuring the impact of the government efforts in reducing inequality is still low. In many cases, the social workers just record evidence of intervention efforts, and not the impact.
Further, social workers can help in addressing the impact of unequal access to basic needs and financial resources on access to health. Various scholars have shown that social workers can be very supportive in linking the disadvantaged persons with programs that provide such support. To be specific, there are numerous programs in the UK that are designed to provide basic needs to individuals from disadvantaged families or backgrounds. However, some of them do not access the support from such programs due to factors such as lack of awareness (Marmot, 2004, p. 47). Social workers can link such people to the established programs so that they access the support. Increased access to the critical needs such as food, water, housing and education can help to reduce inequalities in health. However, in the UK, social workers have not been actively involved in providing such support (Marmot Review Team, 2010). One of the reasons for the lack of the support is that social workers have been adopting inconsistent approaches in addressing the poverty. As a result, the effectiveness of linking poor individuals to programs in the UK is unknown.
Further, social workers can help in addressing the problem of inequality in health through providing education to the public. Some sections of the public, especially those who are not well educated may not have adequate information about all factors that contribute to poor health. Social workers can educate the public about the factors that lead to poor health. For instance, social workers can enhance the awareness of the public about lifestyles that can lead to poor health. In the same vein, the social workers can play a great role in encouraging the public to seek health services in the established health and social care centers (Marmot, 2004, p. 49). In the UK, the social workers have been playing a significant role in encouraging the public to seek for health services to address all emerging or existing health problems. A good example is the involvement of social workers in ‘Mosaics of Meaning’ that is designed to encourage individuals with mental health problems to seek for healthcare services. In addition, social workers can help in providing health services to people facing health risks such as disabled persons, old people, asylum seekers and people wrestling with severe ill-health conditions. Also, social workers can help in the early identification of individuals with social and health care needs. In the UK, the social workers have been active in the aforementioned areas (Bywaters, MCLeod & Napier, 2009, p. 119). However, the impacts of their efforts has not been adequately researched and documented. There are, however, indications to show that the efforts of social workers have helped in improving access of some disadvantaged groups to the critical needs that contribute to the overall health.
Conclusion
In conclusion, there are numerous, complex causes of inequalities in health. Social factors are widely described as the main factors that contribute the problem. Social class or the gap between the rich and the poor is one of the social factors that contribute significantly to the inequalities. The aspects of social class that contribute to the unequal access include employment, education and access to critical needs such as food, water and housing. Social workers can help in addressing the problem through channeling their efforts in research, educating the public, working with people with high health risks and through identifying individuals who are in need of early intervention.
Part 3: Capacity of Policy and Practice in Challenging Stigma and Discrimination
Stigmatism refers to the disapproval of an individual or a group of individuals on grounds that serve to distinguish them or to limit their interaction with the other members of a society. On the other hand, discrimination mistreatment or unjust treatment of a person or a group of persons, leading to unequal, or lack of access to certain benefits that are accessed by other people. In some cases, discrimination may be meant to cause harm. People who face stigma often experience discrimination as well. Both Stigma and discrimination occur as a result of association with a certain health condition, practice, behavior, economic background or socio-cultural background. Irrespective of the cause, stigma and discrimination can lead to severe negative impacts on the victims, including stress, brain trauma, and depression (Rowlingson, 2011, p. 41). In some cases, pro-longed stigma and severe discrimination can increase the risk of early death. With regard to the health condition, stigma and discrimination undermine the care, prevention and treatment of individuals with health problems such as disabilities. Consequently, stigma and discrimination of individuals on the ground of their health conditions is highly discouraged globally. As such, social workers and government agencies in the UK have put significant efforts in discouraging stigma and discrimination of individuals on medical ground. The current section examines the stigma and discrimination facing disabled individuals. Secondly, the section gives an overview of the general policies that discourage stigma and discrimination of disabled persons in the UK (Rowlingson, 2011, p. 41). Lastly, the section evaluates the policies for social work and disability organizations established to counter the problem of stigma and discrimination against disabled persons.
Stigma and Discrimination facing Disabled PersonsIn most cases, individuals with disabilities suffer from stigmatism and discrimination. In some cases, typical individuals hardly understand the conditions with the individuals with disabilities and thus, they perceive them as having odd behaviors. In schools, for instance, typical children may find it difficult to accept children with disabilities, or even interact with them. In some cases, they may openly show rejection to the individuals with disabilities. Adults with disabilities are also likely to face rejection in the society (Felnando & Keating, 2009, p. 52). A significant problem with individuals with disabilities is inability to perform equally to other people. In most cases, individuals with disabilities wonder why they have lower abilities to perform various activities like other individuals. Such thoughts often lead the persons with disabilities to suffer from low esteem and resentment. In other words, stigma and discrimination affect the emotional well-being of individuals with disabilities. In turn, this can degenerate into psychological problems such as stress, withdrawal, depression an
