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Modern Media Anthropology

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Institutional Affiliation

Introduction

Modern media encompasses digital media, print media, and broadcast media formats. Over the years, media technologies have significantly evolved. Currently, it is possible to connect and share content with billions of people across the globe. As media has evolved, anthropologists have explored how content produced is interpreted and adapted by people from different groups. Modern media has significantly changed how healthcare professionals and patients interact and share information in the healthcare profession. In the nursing profession, modern media has had positive and negative impacts on the professional lives of nurses. Modern media involves technologies that have helped spread information and connect people. Therefore, media anthropology is an important aspect of healthcare as it helps nurses understand how their patients consume and interact with their content.

How Anthropologists Study Modern Media

Anthropologists have long studied mass communication and a wide range of digital media. Media is technology that connects people through shared content and is a central part of everyday life. Anthropologists explore the ways media is designed and adopted by communities and cultural groups. The information shown is interpreted differently depending on the audiences’ culture, history, and identity (Peake, 2018). Anthropologists also explore the ways media enable people to create and maintain ties and their sense of identity. Overall, media anthropologists question universal beliefs around various forms of media and highlight how an individual’s culture, history and beliefs influence the interpretation of media content.

Ways Nurses Could Use Modern Media Professionally

The internet is the most popular form of modern media currently. The latter half of the 1900s saw the creation of the internet; however, it was not until the rise and popularity of social media platforms that its influence reached the masses. Different individuals created various social media platforms between the late 1990s and early 2000. These platforms made it easy for people to connect. Social networking sites are part of everyday life and can be used for professional and personal reasons. Social media platforms are characterized by openness, community, connectedness, and participation. These features aid in the efficient transfer of information and enable nurses to connect and engage with other healthcare workers or potential clients. For instance, openness is evident when nurses share healthcare information with other healthcare professionals. On platforms such as Twitter, nurses can use hashtags to receive real-time information on topics they find interesting. They can also use these hashtags to participate in conversations. Nurses can use social media sites to access and connect with experts in their profession. This ease in accessing and connecting with experts enables the creation of online communities dedicated to nursing. Also, nurses can use social media platforms such as LinkedIn to build their professional image by sharing their skills, accomplishments, and qualifications.

Social media is an internet-based tool that meets the different needs of users. As a nurse, I could use this powerful tool for collaboration. Healthcare is constantly evolving as technology and science advance. As healthcare advances, there is a need for healthcare professionals from all parts of the globe to connect and collaborate. I could use social media to create a platform that connects specialists with nursing students and young nursing professionals starting their careers. People can engage in online discussions, share health information, and discuss career opportunities through this platform regardless of their geographical locations. Lastly, I could use this platform to champion a supportive environment that enables all participants to acquire real-time information on best practices, further contributing to the field of nursing.

Benefits Of Using Modern Media in Nursing

Efficient communication is an aspect of modern media that enables nurses to provide and receive professional training. Since the covid-19 pandemic broke out, various learning institutions have relied on the internet to offer online classes to their students. For instance, in Australia, nurses must receive annual professional development points. During the pandemic, nurses used the internet to access online classes and obtain their professional development points (Hao & Gao, 2017). Also, modern media, such as various social media platforms, have made it easy for nurses to connect with their patients. This ease in connection has made it possible for nurses to frequently check up on their patients and share crucial healthcare information without necessarily meeting in person. Another advantage of modern media is the ease with which nurses can create a supportive network of individuals. On social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook, nurses can connect with other like-minded individuals who can help them improve and navigate their professional life. Lastly, social media platforms such as LinkedIn enable nurses to get jobs more quickly as they are more visible to potential employers and recruiters.

Drawbacks Of Using Modern Media in Nursing

Though modern media, such as the internet and social media, provides distinct advantages, it also has disadvantages. One of the biggest challenges in the nursing field is the lack of reliable healthcare information. The ease of sharing information through modern media has made it easier for people to share accurate and fake information. Moreover, some professionals have been found guilty of magnifying health information to get more clicks, a factor that has further discredited existing healthcare information found online (Hao & Gao, 2017). Another significant drawback is the violation of patients’ privacy. Some nurses post videos and pictures of patients without consent. It results in a breach of trust as it denies them dignity. Moreover, ignoring individuals’ anonymity and privacy causes them harm (Nelson, 2018). Patient privacy violations destroy the relationship nurses have with their patients. Patient privacy violations can also harm a nurse’s career as they can result in job termination and the withdrawal of their registration.

Conclusion

Media anthropology enables professionals to understand different aspects of modern media and how people interact and interpret their content. As media technology advances, nurses must know how to use this tool to promote healthcare and grow professionally. Also, nurses must understand media anthropology as it can help them have better media interactions with their audience, further promoting health and professional excellence.

References

Hao, J., & Gao, B. (2017). Advantages and disadvantages for nurses of using social media. Journal of Primary Health Care and General Practice, 3, 2.

Nelson, K. (2020). Doing fieldwork: Methods in cultural anthropology. Perspectives: An open invitation to cultural anthropology.

Peake, B. (2018). Media Anthropology: Meaning, Embodiment, Infrastructure, and Activism. UMBC Faculty Collection.

Modern Period

Modern period came in the early 20th century and was primarily distinguishable by rebellious mood. The approaches anticipated to revitalize how modern civilization viewed issues like politics, science and life. Between 1900 and 1930, the rebellious mood became somewhat familiar to society as a way to reject the European culture, which was corrupt, complacent, and passive. It ailed since it was bound by society artificialities that put much emphasis on public image and at the same time too scared of change. The moral bankruptcy dissatisfaction on or about everything influenced some great European thinkers of modern history to figure out about other alternatives, more primarily, primitive cultures. As such, they had already predicted that the new emerging culture would be subject to undermining culture and authority in the name of enlightening the contemporary society (Murphy, 2002). This paper aims to critically analyze the modern period based on three theories of the truth, that is, correspondence theory, coherence theory, and other ethical arguments.

The correspondence theory points out that the truth or falsity of utterance is predetermined how it associates to the world and whether it describes the universe accurately (David, 2002). Russel and Moore developed the theory at the beginning of the twentieth century. Thomas Aquinas interpreted the theory as “truth is the equation of thing and intellect (David, 2002). In other words, perception is presumed to be truthful if only it conforms to the external reality. According to the coherence theory of truth, any correct postulation entails in its soundness with part of a particular set of hypotheses (Davidson, 2000). This theory goes contrary to the correspondence theory based on two on two primal respects. The two theories conflict on the issue that propositions bear to their truth conditions as one insist that relation is coherence while the other is correspondence. Secondly, they also conflict on the matter of truth conditions. Coherence theory cites that the truth contexts of postulations entail in the other hypothesis. At the same time, correspondence theory indicates that truth conditions are world objectives features as opposed to being in a general proposition.

Nihilism is one of the characteristics that defined the modern period. Nihilism opposes the existence of God or rather the religion, not to mention the moral principles as the only simple way of obtaining social progress. It means that the modern societies repudiated the societal, ethical codes in which they were living in. It, however, does not mean that some of the greatest philosophers in the modern period did not believe in God or that they came up against the meaninglessness of life, although, a significant number of them were atheists. A German philosopher, Emmanuel Kant, analyzed on the critique of pure reasons and the categorical imperatives. All discussions about ethics mostly bring the issue about God. According to the divine command theory, a deity predetermines what is good or bad. Thomas Aquinas, in his theory of natural law, affirms that morality comes from us because God made us.

Immanuel Kant viewed religion and morality as a terrible pairing, insisting that what is good or right is subject to the application of pure reasons, and a sense of consideration for other individuals (Kant, 1785). Perhaps, Kant understood the fact that if all the people were to use religion as the basis for their morality, they all could not find the same answers. It is pretty much confident that morality is constant. For example, one plus one equals two, whether you are atheist, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, etc. Kant pointed out that in most scenarios, it not a moral choice on whether or not people ought to do something, but rather a contingent in their desires (Kant, 1785). Kant regarded these commands that one should always adhere to when they need something specific as hypothetical imperatives. For example, if one wants to get rich, you ought to work hard towards making money. Hypothetical imperatives are somewhat inclined to prudence as opposed to morality.

According to Kant, morality is all about categorical imperatives (CI). Categorical imperatives are commands that one must adhere to irrespective of one’s desires, and that moral duties come from pure reasons (Williams, 1968). Moreover, it does not matter whether or not one wants to be moral as the moral law binds all the people. As such, no religion is required to predetermines such a law since what is a virtue or vice is knowable by applying one’s intellect. Categorical imperatives follow two fundamental principles, that is, the universalizability principle and the formula of humanity. The universalizability principle demand people to act in adherence to the maxim in which one can and at the same time will without any contradiction to the universal law. As such, the maxim is more of a general rule, while the universal law is something that needs to be done is the same scenarios. If one steals, it means that you approve to the maxim of stealing and other people should always steal and of course it brings about contradiction. The universal law does not make exceptions to one’s self as that is unfair.

In the second principle, the formula of humanity, it reprimands people for acting so that they treat humanity as an end and not as a mere means (Kant, 1785). Using one as a mere means is to use that person for your gain without considering the interests of the person or thing you are using. Humans are rational and autonomous; thus, they can set their objectives and work towards achieving them (Williams, 1968). As such, humans are imbued with an absolute moral worth, and that translates to, they should not be manipulated or manipulate other autonomous agents.

References

Murphy, M. (2002). The natural law tradition in ethics.

David, M. (2002). The correspondence theory of truth.

Davidson, D. (2000). A coherence theory of truth and knowledge. Epistemology: an anthology, 154-163.

Kant, I. (1785). The categorical imperative.

Williams, T. C. (1968). The concept of the categorical imperative: a study of the place of the categorical imperative in Kant’s ethical theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Modifications to Our Aviation Maintenance Complex

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Modifications to Our Aviation Maintenance Complex

Problem 1

Aviation maintenance complex is an area in the airline industry that is used for different operations such as administration and aircraft maintenance hangar. Slight changes would need critical decisions to be made and with the introduction of additional storage by constructing a mezzanine level above the original shop. The mezzanine will be a semi-permanent floor system that protrudes from the walls. It will be accessed through a ladder to minimize wastage of space in the area. The ladder will be movable to make work easier for anyone to access the storage room. The storage facility will have a 2 feet guardrail all around it for human safety (Chisholm, 2010).

Problem 2

A portable dock board is one way through which goods are moved from one area to another in most warehouses. However, there are some regulations that govern the use of portable dock board, which is known as the loading dock safety. The regulations require that all the employees should have knowledge or be trained on how the system works. In addition, there should be inspection programs that ensure that safety is guaranteed to the employees (U.S Department of Labour, n.d.).

Problem 3

The oxygen and fuel-gas cylinders at the site of operation fire can easily start because these are highly inflammable substances. The oxygen creates a condition necessary for fire to exist while the fuel-gas cylinders can explode or even catch fire, and it is for these reasons that there is safety regulations related to the storage of theses cylinders. According to the regulations, all employees shall be trained and judged capable by their managers for this delicate work of taking care of the cylinders. The compressed gas containers should all be marked, for categorizing the gas content, with either a symbol or the chemical name of the gas (U.S Department of Labor, n.d.).

The movements of these cylinders are also required to be done in an orderly manner as the regulations states that all cylinders in a workstation shall be separated from each other in order to avoid combustion. The oxygen and fuel-gas cylinders are supposed to be stored on different areas, or moved separately to ensure safety of the workmanship and the area.

The cutting torch is one of the most dangerous equipment that is available in the workstation, and it should be handled with care to avert disaster. The regulations require that the torch be off when not in use and should be checked on a daily basis to detect any leak from its pipes (U.S Department of Labor, n.d.).

There are regulations that address the storage and condition of hoses used in cutting operations, which state that the storage facilities should be double-checked for safety and the hoses inspected for damage or leaks to improve the safety of the warehouse or workstation.

Problem 4

According to the occupational safety and health standards set by the United States government, all electrode cable of a welding rig should be in a good condition that guarantees the safety of the public and the workers at the station. Exposed wires are highly dangerous and can ignite fire that might lead to loss of life and destruction of property and it is for that reason that any tool that is worn out should be replaced immediately (Chisholm, 2010).

Problem 5

There should be great concern about the exposure to methyl ethyl ketone. These dangerous chemical can affect the nervous system when a person is exposed to it for a long period. Some of its long-term effects include irritation of the skin, throat, and damage to the eye. The organization should therefore look for ways to minimize its effects through having proper ventilations and having people working in-shifts to avoid long-term exposure (U.S Department of Labor, n.d.).

References

Chisholm, H., (2010). Ensuring Safety in the Aviation Maintenance Complex. (11th Ed.). Cambridge University Press

U.S Department of Labor. (n.d.). Occupational Safety & Health Administration. . Retrieved June 10, 2014, from https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9854

By way of introduction, my name is XX. I am a XX- year old young individual seeking admission into the University of Michigan and, particularly, in the School of Dentistry to pursue the two-year Bachelor’s Degree of Science in Dental Hygiene. I have been studying the same course, and I am transferring to complete my degree, graduate successfully, and become a qualified dental hygienist. Worth noting, I have had a passion for oral health since a tender age. I come from a humble background, and growing up, my parents always instilled in me values of hard work, resilience, and integrity, which I believe will help me in attaining y dream. Additionally, I am a first-generation student, and I hope to use this opportunity to encourage my siblings and peers who look up to me to continue resiliently working towards their goals. My parents discovered my interests in dentistry while I was still young, and ever since, they have always encouraged me to keep working towards my goal. My interests lie in innovation, medicine, dentistry, and clinical matters. I hope that one day, after completing my studies, I will set up a dental clinic in my home area. This is my way of giving back to society because I will use the knowledge I will gain to treat the most vulnerable members of society who cannot afford insurance to take care of their dental hygiene. I feel that women and children particularly need to be trained on the best practices they can employ in taking good care of their health. Thus far, my biggest accomplishment was the time I was working hand-in-hand with a dental hygienist at a dental office within my location. It was a defining moment for me because I got to interact and network with qualified practitioners and experts in my field of interest. I got to learn so much as it relates to oral hygiene. I exchanged information with experts and honed my skills as a future dental hygienist. Working there gave me a lot of fulfillment, and I got an assurance of the professional I want to take in Life. Conclusively, I hope this application appeals to the selection committee, and I get selected for this program.

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Accomplishments of Charlemagne

Charlemagne was a significant figure in the history of the Holy Roman Empire. Popularly known as Charles the great, he was born on April 2, 742 in Northern Europe. In 771, he became the sole ruler of the Frankish Empire after Carloman died. It was a coastal strip from southwest France up through the Netherlands into Northern Germany. It was at this time that the Franks were in a period of general disorder evidenced by the falling back of the Franks into barbarian ways in addition to neglecting their education and religion. He was an imposing physical presence with extraordinary courage and physical strength coupled with an iron will. As a figure of history, he accomplished a lot in restoring order and sanity in the land. He was one of the most important figures in the history of early Medieval Europe due to the number of accomplishments during his reign.

Military Revival

Following the death of Pepin in 768 Ad, the kingdom was divided between Charles the Great and his young brother. Consequently, after the death of his brother, he became the sole ruler of the Frankish Kingdom and he was determined to expand the kingdom in all directions. By word and the cross, he became the undisputed ruler of Eastern Europe. For three decades, his reign was dominated by military campaigns which were prompted by the need to defend his people against external forces and internal forces which threatened to break his kingdom apart. The most demanding military undertaking was against the Saxons who were longtime enemies of the Franks. It was a conquest which covered decades. The war resulted in mass killings and deportation of the rebellious Saxons which eventually lead to their submission. In addition to the Saxon wars, he initiated other wars with the sole aim of reaffirming his authority. These campaigns were aimed at incorporating the Lombard kingdom into the Frankish realm (Morrissey).

Concerned with defending the territory against Muslim invasion, he invaded Spain in 778. However, the Frankish was defeated since the venture was ill-advised due to the promises of help from local Muslim leaders in Spain who had different motives. Irrespective of the defeat, he went on to win over Bavaria by annexing them. The victory brought with it other military campaigns which included facing the Avars who were Asiatic nomads. Successive campaigns disintegrated the empire bringing good fortunes to Charlemagne in the process. He captures the territory south of Danube in Carinthia and Pannonia. Additionally, it led to the conversion of the Avars to Christianity. By combining effective military prowess and grasp of the political divides of the time, he elevated the status of the Frankish Kingdom throughout Europe. On matters relating governance, he believed that governance was solely for the benefit of the citizens. He was merely serving his people. He was a reformer who had the thoughts of his people at his heart (Kershaw).

Religious Revival and Reform

Charlemagne’s military campaigns brought with them good fortunes. He envisioned a time where a unified administration would be achieved in his territory. Diplomacy efforts were the order of the day during his reign. He had a religious policy that was a clear reflection of his capacity to respond to forces of change that were at work in the world. He intensified the reform programs that were instituted by his father, Pippin and his uncle, Carloman. As a matter of public concern, he aimed to deepen the spiritual life of the people by making it a prime goal of his governance. He focused on strengthening the hierarchy structure of the church by cleansing the clergy to reinforce the tenets of the faith and moral improvement. Additionally, he aimed at completely removing Paganism from the land. As the reforms progressed, he aimed to institute programs that would discipline the clerics and assert control over their properties thus defining the doctrine in the orthodox. As a result, he stamped his authority on matters relating to the church. He won over the support of the Papacy by claiming his ecclesiastical establishment over the body. His good relations with the Papacy ensured he received valuable support for his religious policies and implementation without conflicts of purpose.

The religious policy instituted by king ensured he had complete control over the appointment of the Bishops and Abbots. Consequently, he was the guarantor of the Papal States. His major achievement in as far as religion was concerned was strengthening the ecclesiastical structures in addition to deepening the piety. King Charlemagne ensured that the morals of his Christian subjects were corrected. In appreciation of his religious reforms, he received the glorification of the king as the rector of “New Israel.” Due to his advocacy of Christianity, he enjoyed the role of protecting the Christian establishment in Jerusalem in addition to being the ruler of the kingdom of Christians of Asturias. He also aimed to expand Christianity by bringing to the fold new followers. It was evidenced when he forced the conquered Saxons to convert to Christianity (Story).

Cultural Reforms

Charles the Great had a perfect understanding of his religious and political reforms as they were unfolding in the Christian West. He and his administration were at the forefront of coming up with policies and activities that would bring about a cultural renaissance. The circle of educated men reinforced the effects of the program by giving the programs shape and perspective. He ordered a series of orders that were geared towards s=defining the objectives of the cultural policy. The main aim of the policy was to ensure a continuous improvement of the literacy as it pertained understanding and discharging the responsibilities and duties of the administrators. To achieve the policy, the educators with the direction of the king sought to expand the education system in addition to producing books and publications. The books and publications were to touch on the Christian Latin culture in general. Educators in the land produced many books with the help of the courts in producing books that had a deeper exploration of Latin and Christianity in general. A new writing system was devised to make reading and writing easier. Many works including works of poetry, historiography, biblical exegesis, theological tracts, and epistles were composed for the purpose of exemplifying intellectual activity and linguistic expertise. People were proud of the activity making them boast of a ‘New Athens’ in the empire.

Cultural change was realized after some time as evidenced by the imitation of the cultural models that were provided by the court circle. This was a sign of renewal. Charlemagne ensured that the Bishops revitalized the existing Episcopal and monastic schools in addition to founding new ones. Measures were taken to drive the intake of new students into the schools with the aim of expanding the culture of the people. The school head went beyond teaching to developing and compiling textbooks for learning in the traditional liberal arts category. Publications increased dramatically. Results of the cultural learning program were realized in his life and beyond where there was improved competence in Latin as evidenced by the written documents (Godman).

Despite being responsible for the death of many people, he still deserves the title of the “great.” As an effective military leader, innovative administrator and a promoter of the culture of the land through learning he succeeded in many arenas. As a result, he significantly succeeded as the apolitical figure by being at the forefront of diplomacy. He stood above his adversaries and contemporaries in creating the empire which was an admiration of many. Despite the empire not lasting, he changed the face of Europe in striking ways. The effects are still felt to this day. He treated the empire as his personal property regarding the way he divided his realm equally among his sons. He was a man who went his way given the way he approached issues in the public limelight and his own life. He was a conqueror since he expanded and consolidated the Frankish nation through force and military prowess. He gained the respect of his nobility and his impressive victories over his neighbors. He succeeded in acquiring more territory as compared to other European monarchs of his time. He was keen on maintaining his authority over his delegates. He left a reputation of an effective leader in the world whose impacts are felt to this day.

Works Cited

Godman, Peter. Poets and emperors: Frankish politics and Carolingian poetry. Oxford University Press, USA, 1987.

Kershaw, Paul. Peaceful kings: Peace, power and the early medieval political imagination. OUP Oxford, 2011.

Morrissey, Robert John. Charlemagne & France: a thousand years of mythology. Univ of Notre Dame Pr, 2003.

Story, Joanna, ed. Charlemagne: empire and society. Manchester University Press, 2005.

CACREP Standards Discussion

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CACREP Standards Discussion

CACREP is an institution that accredits more than 906 doctoral and master’s degree programs in the field of counseling and specialties that are offered by 434 universities and colleges across the United States. It is both a status and process that indicates the commitment to the excellence of programs. The CACREP standards were drafted with the intention of clarifying and simplifying accreditation requirements and promoting a unified counseling profession. The CACREP accreditation process entails self-assessment of programs alongside an external review to know if program standards are met or not. To the members of the public, an accreditation status shows that a program successfully fulfils its commitment to attaining quality education.

One of the terms mentioned in the CACREP standards that I can identify as a strength for myself is section two that pertains to professional counseling identity. For me, this is my stronghold because I tend to understand apply the standards best in laying a foundation for the counseling as and the curriculum. This is a stronghold because, as a student I am actively involved in the counseling profession as evidenced in my participation in professional counseling organizations, including the American Counseling Association (ACA). Moreover, I participate in workshop and seminars and any other activities which contribute to professional and personal growth. Additionally, when it comes to the practicum bit of the counseling profession, I consider this s stronghold because I see it as an opportunity to put into practice the skills and knowledge gathered in the classroom sector. I also consider myself a professional which requires me to employ practical practice in my work. This includes maintaining professional behavior when dealing with clients and not engaging in romantic relationships with them (Lu, & Pillay, 2021). Also, I am good at maintaining secrecy as I realize that breaking client confidentiality is one of the gravest mistakes one can ever commit in the counseling practice.

The standard I hope to improve on is the standard pertaining to the learning environment. I could use a bit of improving in this regard as I struggle to coordinate with my instructors a times. CACREP standards mandate that all students that are in entry-level programs should be assigned an advisor during the duration of their program to help them with developing a plan for the study program (Akos & Duquette, 2022). As a student, I must collaborate with my advisors and instructors if I want to excel in the field. Without an advisor, I am likely to lose out on important elements of the practice. Having an experienced advisor in the counseling field is helpful as they have gone before me and are best placed to guide me to ensure I am successful because they know the ropes of the counseling profession.

References

Akos, P., & Duquette, K. (2022). Trends and Changes in School Counselor CACREP Standards in the United States. Journal of School-Based Counseling Policy and Evaluation, 4(1), 1-10.

Lu, H. T., & Pillay, Y. (2021). Examining the 2016 CACREP Standards: A National Survey.

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Economics

According to Aguilar (1967), he defined environmental scanning as the process through which a leader collects pertinent information of events unfolding outside the business and uses it to monitor the firm’s future strategy. The search to identify these trends establishes a firm’s prospects and concurrently poses tests to the unrelenting success of the firm. Thus when a firm conducts an environmental scan it focuses on the configuration of the connection between the business and its environment. The environment under which a business firm operates has a crucial role since it determines the firm’s accomplishments and botches. There exists a robust connection between the shift in the environment, the calculated reaction of firms to the shifts and the performance. Therefore, it proves to be crucial for a firm to comprehend the powers of the external environment and how they manipulate the connection. The external environment under which a firm operates is portrayed as dynamic and ever changing. Moreover, the aforementioned traits of the external environment present both prospects and challenges to a firm.

In a bid to comply with the findings of an environmental scan, a firm should attempt to realign its stratagems so as to embrace the prospects and avoid the threats presented by the external environment. Simultaneously, the potential shifts in the external environment causes distress to the appeal or the risk levels of investors or investments in a firm. All firms operate under a macro environment which consists of the political, legal, sociocultural, economic and environmental aspects. The environmental aspect highlights issues like the policy of sustainability and pollution among other issues. Additionally, the driving force behind the fundamental transitions witnessed in the external environment is technological progress and temper.

Macroeconomics is a domain concerned with the tendencies of the whole economy and not a specific fraction of it. This study delves into economic phenomena such as GDPs and how it impacted by shifts in national income, price levels and unemployment. An exemplary example of how macroeconomics works is the variance in net exports and how it would affect the nation’s GDP and unemployment rate. Alternatively, microeconomics refers to the study of resolutions entrepreneurs make concerning the apportionment of prices and resources of merchandise and services. Under this study the regulations and taxes imposed by the government are also put into consideration. All the forces that affect the price level in an economy including demand and supply are highlighted in microeconomics.

Macroeconomics can be measured through national income, prices and the rate of inflation, and finally real variables. Under national income/GDP the economic activity of the nation’s economy is measured. Statistics from GDP measurement provide a good basis to the structure of a nation’s economy. With regard to inflation rate; it is measured as an increase of prices which are conveyed as an annual percentage. Inflation rate tabulates the speed at which the prices of commodities upsurge on average. For one to be able to measure the rate of inflation he/she must have the overall information on the level of prices. Real variables can also act as a measurement in macroeconomics. The aggregate of all outputs into one definite figure in macroeconomics is achieved through utilizing money as the yard stick for measurement.

Microeconomics can be measured through stock variables and flow. The principle of stock variables is measured through the wealth and inventories of the firms and people in the market. Alternatively, the flow variables are measured through a period of time and consider factors such as incomes and rate of production and consumption. The other factor embrace so as to aid in measuring microeconomics is price. The prices can be categorized into two which are nominal and real price. Nominal price refers to the absolute dollar price of the merchandise when being sold in the market. On the other hand, the real price is the worth comparative to a comprehensive measure of prices. Utility can also be adopted as a measure to microeconomics. Utility can be adopted by measuring the extent to which a market cannot do without a product.

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Module 4 MIC SLP

The human body is often under attack from different pathogens that try to invade it and for those already inside attempt to infest it. However, the body has a defensive mechanism to protect itself against such attacks known as the immune system. It is a system covering the whole body and consists of organs, cells and tissues that have all evolved and gained the defensive capacity against harmful microbes. The immune system functions by initially recognizing foreign antigens, a job well done by antigen-presenting cells, abbreviated as APC, and they are in two forms, either the macrophages or the dendritic cells.

Upon exposure to a pathogen, for example, Mycobacterium tuberculosis the body’s immune system recognizes the antigens on the foreigner’s bodies, which are known as major histocompatibility complex proteins. At this point, the B cells are signaled by the APC, which leads to a proliferation process that releases antibodies. The antigens on the body surfaces of the pathogens combine with the antibodies from the B cells, which is yet another signal for macrophages to attack the pathogens via phagocytosis (Singh and Kiran 154). In case the body is under attack by bacteria, the antibodies still combine with antigens on the pathogens’ surfaces. However, they do not signal macrophages, but serum proteins, known as complement, combine with the stationary pathogenic antibodies. This process is followed by the complement destroying the pathogens by drilling holes through their surfaces and ultimately eliminating them. In case the pathogens, for example, bacteria, have infected the human body, the antibodies, upon combining with the antigens on the surfaces of the infectious microorganisms, signal the macrophages to destroy the infected cells. The immune system has a unique way of distinguishing pathogenic and nonpathogenic microorganisms, for example, Escherichia coli, which involves recognition of Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns, abbreviated as PAMPs. If a microorganism lacks the PAMPs, the immune system does not react towards it harshly, for example, by phagocytosis (Vance, Ralph, and Daniel 11). An example of a PAMP is the presence of lipid A on the outer surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the immune system reacts by destroying the foreign organism. Escherichia coli lacks a PAMP and is part of the normal flora of the human gut as such the immune system does not react against it.

The body’s immune system functions in two major ways, which are innate and adaptive modes. The innate system is quicker than adaptive as it reacts immediately the body is under attack by various mechanisms such as release of mucus, and formation of inflammations among other means of defense. Hence, the system would react by activating innate system upon the introduction of a pathogenic microbe for the first time into a body. However, upon failure of the innate system, the body switches to adaptive mechanism, which takes more time to activate. The key difference between the two systems is that innate one is general and prevents the entry and spread of pathogens while adaptive mode targets only the foreign microbes. Adaptive system forms mechanisms that target the invading microorganisms through antibodies, which the body directs towards the pathogenic antigens, and the rest of the destruction process follows.

When a body is exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is the causative agent of tuberculosis, it activates the adaptive immunity system (Informed Health Online Web). Unfortunately, the process of defending itself against the bacteria is slow, but eventually, it gets the job done. Another unique measure related to adaptive immune system is the storage of the defensive path memory. When the body is exposed to the same pathogens, for instance after two years, the body recalls the defensive path and activates it quickly since the antibodies are already in the system.

Works Cited

Informed Health Online. How do the innate and adaptive immune systems work together? National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2012. Web. 23 November 2013.

Singh, Kiran and Kiran, Kapoor. Introductory Microbiology. Jaipur: Global Media, 2010. Print.

Vance, Russell, Ralph, Isberg, and Daniel, Portnoy. “Patterns of Pathogenesis: Discrimination of Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Microbes by the Innate Immune System.” Cell Host Microbe 6.1 (2009): 10-21.

Model of the Earth-Moon System

ASTR 1010L

The goal of this lab is twofold – first, to help you get a feel for the the relative sizes of the Earth and moon and just how far apart they are from one another (and how much EMPTY SPACE is out there!!, and second, to review and practice mathematical skills you will need in later labs. We can work on this together – join a WebEx session during any tutoring hours or schedule a time that works for you!

This lab has lots of math in it – this is not like the majority of our labs this semester. Most will have some small calculations here and there (though two will be more math intensive), so do not fear the rest of the semester if this is difficult for you. Definitely take a break if you are getting frustrated, and remember you can send me an e-mail or text any time. Make sure to give me guidance as to what you need – just saying “I’m stuck on question 12” doesn’t help me help you!

To follow up on all the amazing pictures in the first lab, let’s start looking at the actual sizes of objects in the solar system. The Earth’s average diameter is 12,756 km. Because it is difficult to have a feel for the size of this numbers like these, we will often use ratios, or the number of times one number contains the other, to express sizes and distances.

You may have seen ratios written like 16:9 (the aspect ratio of HDTVs and movie screens), indicating that the screen is 16 units wide and 9 units (any unit!) high. Instead of this notation with a colon, we will simply divide the first number by the second, and say that the ratio of the width to height of an HDTV is 16/9 = 1.8. In other words, the screen is 1.8 times wider than it is tall.

The Moon’s average diameter is 3,476 km. How many times larger is the Earth than the moon?

12,756 km

137160065405003,476 km = 27.25%Km

If you’re not used to dealing with ratios like this, two questions may arise. First, what happens to the units? Second, your calculator may say something like 3.669735327963. What do you actually write down!?

First, the units. Almost any time that you are presented with a measurement in astronomy, it will have some sort of unit attached. After all, 12,756 km is a very different size than 12,756 inches. Remember from algebra that if you have the same variable in the numerator and the denominator of a fraction, you can cancel it? For example, 4ab/a just equals 4b, right? You can do the same with units. In the case of ratios, you will have the same units on the top and bottom, and so they cancel out, leaving an answer with NO UNITS – it’s just the amount of times one number goes into another. We’ll talk about other cases in a bit when we discuss converting between units.

Second, how many digits do you write down when taking an answer from your calculator? The key is this – your calculator may be faster than you are at doing math, but you’re the one with the brain! Almost all of the numbers you will be seeing this semester are measurements that have been made about objects in the solar system. This makes them different than numbers in math. Numbers in

math are typically exact numbers – if you have 3 dozen eggs, you know you have exactly 36 eggs. You count 1 – 2 – 3 dozen and know that a dozen contains 12, and 3 x 12 = 36.

Not so with measurements! If I tell you that I measured a piece of paper to be 12 cm wide, that just means it was closer to 12 cm than it was to 11 cm or 13 cm. If really I measured the piece of paper to be really close to 12 cm – closer to 12.0 cm than 11.9 cm or 12.1 cm, then I write my measurement as 12.0 cm. If the paper was really, really close to 12 cm, like right on the line of the ruler, I would say it was 12.00 cm. The extra digits tell us about the precision of the measurement. The more precise your measurement, then more digits you are justified in writing down.

Take a few minutes watch the significant figures videos in the Introduction to the Solar System folder, then determine the number of significant digits (also known as “sig figs”!) in each of these measurements, underline which digits are significant, and briefly explain why. HINT: The answers are NOT all the same – whether or not the zeroes are significant depends on where they are!

Significant figures are also discussed on p. xiii of the Mathematical Review document in iCollege.

12 cm#2 of SigFigs:Explanation: All non-zero numbers are significant.

12.0 cm#3 of SigFigs:Explanation: All trailing zeros that are placeholders are not significant

12.00 cm#4 of SigFigs:Explanation: All trailing zeros that are placeholders are not significant

120 cm#2 of SigFigs:Explanation: Zeros at the end of numbers which are not significant but are not removed.

1200 cm#2 of SigFigs:Explanation: Zeros at the end of numbers which are not significant but are not removed

102 cm#3 of SigFigs:Explanation: Zeros between non-zero numbers are significant.

102.0 cm#4 of SigFigs:Explanation: All trailing zeros that are placeholders are not

0.012 cm#2of SigFigs:Explanation: The zero to the left of the decimal value less than 1 is not significant.

When you are calculating with measurements, just keep in mind the adage that “A chain is no stronger than its weakest link.” If you are multiplying or dividing – which we will do more often than adding and subtracting since we’ll often be dealing with ratios – then your answer should have no more significant digits than your least precise (i.e. weakest) measurement.

In the case of the diameters given above, how many significant digits does 12,756 km have?

5 significant digits

How many significant digits does 3,476 km have?

4 significant digits

So how many significant digits should your answer have?

The answer should have a total of 9 significant digits.

So you take that number that was given to you by your calculator (3.669735…) and round it off to 4 significant digits. In this case, we have to think carefully. If we just truncated the answer, we’d get a ratio of 3.669. However, because the next digit is greater than 5, we need to round up. This makes the ratio 3.670. You need that zero at the end to show that you really do know the answer precisely! Just saying 3.67 means your calculated ratio is between 3.665 and 3.675 – but the numbers you were given for the Earth’s and Moon’s radii allow you to know better than that.

I know this can be a bit confusing, and we’re not going to get overly obsessed with significant figures, but it is important that you know how to decide to write down off your calculator based on the numbers you use in a calculation.

Let’s try it out on a few calculations.

Jupiter’s diameter (measured at its equator; it’s not perfectly spherical…) is 143,000 km. How many times larger than Earth’s diameter is Jupiter’s diameter?

143000 km Answer equals to: 11.222 times therefore, Jupiter’s

12,742 km diameter is 11 times larger than earth’s diameter.

How many sig figs should your answer have?Why?

11.222 has 2 significant digits because all non-zero numbers are significant.

What units does your answer have? Why?

The answer has 5 units because all non-zero numbers after the decimal point are significant hence they ought to be counted.

The Moon’s average distance from the Earth is 384,400 km. How many times the Earth’s diameter is this? Make sure to show your work like in part a!!)

384,400

12,742 = 30.1679

Therefore, the Moon’s average distance from the Earth is 30 times the diameter of the Earth.

Ok, now it’s about time to start using this information! On the next page, I want you to draw a “scale model” of the Earth and Moon. I’ve started you off with a circle in the upper right corner for the Moon.

Next, we need to measure the diameter of the Moon circle in centimeters. It’s small, but you should be able to measure to hundredths of cm (e.g. 0.33 cm or 1.55 cm or 3.02 cm) by estimating between tick marks on a centimeter ruler. If you don’t have a centimeter ruler, then you can print the one posted in iCollege – just make sure to print it at 100%. On a typical centimeter ruler, the millimeters are the little tick marks between the centimeter marks (remember that 10 mm = 1 cm). In order to be as precise as possible about the size of Earth in our model, we need to be precise in our measurements; because the Moon circle is so small, by estimating between tick marks you should be able to make a measurement with 2 significant figures (0._ _ cm; remember that the leading 0 is not significant). If the measurement falls exactly on one of the tick marks, then the final (estimated) digit will be a 0 (e.g. 0.50 cm).

So, what is the diameter of the model Moon (the circle on the next page) in cm with 2 significant digits?

The diameter of the model moon is 420500cm. In this case, the figure has 4 significant digits. The zero between units 2 and 5 is significant because it appears between two significant digits.

Now to the Earth… You figured out that the Earth’s diameter is 3.670 times the Moon’s diameter. The point of a scale model is that if the real Earth has a diameter is 3.670 times the Moon’s real diameter, then the diameter of Earth in your model is 3.670 times the Moon’s diameter in the model.

So, in a few minutes, when you calculate where to draw the Earth, how large will you draw it (what will be its diameter)? Don’t forget to show your units in your work and in your answer. (Hint – you should get an answer smaller than the width of your fingertip, and the units of your answer should be cm because 3.670 is a ratio and doesn’t have a unit and you measured the model Moon in cm.)

Earth’s diameter= 12742km

Moon’s diameter 3.670 times smaller than 12742km Earth’s diameter

Therefore, Moon’s diameter is 12742 divided by 3.670 times

12742 = 3,471.93 km rounded off to 3,472km

3.670

3,742km equals to 3.472e+8cm

Answer= moon’s diameter is 3.472e+8cm.

You also figured out the ratio between the Earth-Moon distance and the Earth’s diameter. How many cm apart will your circles representing the Earth and the Moon be drawn?

I didn’t say it, but you did show your work, right? The distance you find should span a large portion of the page but still fit on the page. Check in with me if you’re not sure you got the correct number.

Earth-Moon distance is 384,400Kkm

Earth’s diameter is 12742km

384,400 km = 3.844e+10

12742 = 1.2742e+9

3.844e+10 – 1.2742e+9 = 3.71658e+15

Answer = 3.71658e+15cm

The distances between objects in astronomy is almost always given as the distances between the CENTERS of the objects, not the distances between their surfaces. (For relatively little things far apart from one another, this doesn’t matter too much, but if you’re dealing with relatively large things close together, it can be very important.)

Draw a line from the center of the Moon circle to where the center of your Earth circle will be.

187642549593500The model Moon 

Because you know where the center of the Earth will be in your model, it will be easier to draw the Earth if you know its radius, the distance from its center to its surface, rather than its diameter.

The Earth’s diameter is two times its radius. A note about sig figs here… In this case, 2 is an exact number – the diameter is defined by mathematics to be exactly two times the radius. So, because it’s exact, you don’t have to worry about how many significant digits it has – it’s “perfect”. Your answer for the Earth’s will should have 4 sig figs because 6,378 km has 4 sig figs, and it’s the “weak link” since 2 is exact.

Using your value for the diameter of the model Earth in cm from part b, what is the model Earth’s radius (in cm)?

Earth’s diameter 12742km which is equivalent to 1.2742e+9cm

Radius is 2 times smaller than earths diameter

Therefore 12742 = 6371km

2

6371km = 6.371e+8cm

Answer = 6.371e+8cm

Next, draw a circle the appropriate size for the model Earth using the radius you calculated in part e. The center of the circle should be the end of your line. (You don’t need a compass or anything special, just do your best to draw a shape that’s close to a circle instead of something random and lumpy.)

Model Earth

Label your model Earth.

Congratulations! You’ve constructed a scale model of the Earth-Moon system!

We’re not quite done with the lab, though. Keep pressing!

Any time you use a model or look at a picture, there is some sort of scale to the model or the picture. The scale is what allows you to convert between measurements you make on the model or picture and the real sizes of the objects in the model or picture. In your Earth-Moon model on the previous page, the scale was 1 cm = 17,500 km. This isn’t a conversion factor like there are 10 mm in 1 cm, but it tells you that 1 cm on the model (your drawing on the previous page) is 17,500 km in real life. However, the math that you use to convert between units is the same as you would use to convert between sizes in the model and sizes in real life.

Before we proceed, review the “How to Convert Units of Measurement” resource in the Introduction to the Solar System folder.

What is “The Big Secret”?

Numbers with units, like 16.2 meters or 32 ft/sec², are treated exactly the same as coefficients with variables, like 16.2x or 32y/z²

Give an example, different than one in the “How to Convert Units” webpage, of using the principle of multiplying by 1 to convert one unit to another.

60 minutes = 1

1 hour

Let’s say we want to convert 5 hours into minutes, we multiply it by 60 minutes which is equal to 1 hour.

60 minutes x 5 hours = 300 minutes

I hour

What are the two steps to “How to Pick a ‘1’”?

Construct a fraction that is equal to 1 and multiply the original measurement by that fraction.

Now let’s use this method to confirm the scale given above. Fill in the blank below with the length of your line between the centers of the Earth and Moon (the distance you found in part c of #5), then complete the calculation. Because in the model 1 cm = 17,500 km, the fraction

11430001435100017,500 km equals 1 and so is a valid conversion factor.

1 cm

3,742km ×

17,500 km

224028065405001 cm=

What units cancel?

Kilometers (Km) cancel in the calculation.

What unit stays in your answer?

Since we are looking for the distance in centimeters, the centimeters units will stay in the answer

Does your answer roughly agree with the actual distance between the Earth and Moon? (This value was given to you in part b of #5.) If it’s FAR off, then check your math on the last few pages, but if it’s pretty close, then the difference is due to rounding and imperfect measurements

– remember you were only able to measure the size of the model Moon to 2 significant figures.

To see how the Earth-Moon system is different from Jupiter and its moons, let’s use the same scale (from the Earth-Moon model in Part 1) to calculate values that you can use to construct a model of Jupiter and its moons.

This time, you are starting with actual sizes in km and need to convert them to cm in your model. Therefore, you need to cancel km out, and so your fraction will be reversed. Fill in the table on the following page using the equation below. Make sure that you show the units of the model distances and diameters in the table. Show the work for a few of your calculations below.

509651018605500Each conversion now will look like this:km ×1 cm=

17,500 km

Object Actual

Diameter Diameter in Model Actual Distance

from Jupiter Distance from

Jupiter in Model

Jupiter 143,000 km 143.0e+10cm N/A N/A

Io 3,640 km 3.640e+15cm 421,800 km 421.8e+ 12cm

Europa 3,120 km 3.120e+8cm 671,100 km 671.1e+10cm

Ganymede 5,260 km 5.260e+12cm 1,070,000 km 107.0e+20cm

Callisto 4,820 km 4.820e+15cm 1,883,000 km 1883.0e+8cm

Whoa, there’s a problem here, isn’t there! You can’t fit that on one (regular-sized) page! This is why pictures in astronomy can often be laid out in a way that is really deceiving! Look at the “Jupiter and its Moons” picture.

Based on your numbers above, explain what is meant by the following sentence: This isn’t a real picture, though it is made from real pictures.

Although the figures appear as a true representation of the measurements, they are figures that have been rounded off to the nearest digit.

To at least get a feel for this model, and see the relative sizes of Jupiter and Earth, draw a circle representing Jupiter at the bottom right of this page and then – with the correct spacing between the centers of the circles – add Jupiter’s closest “big” moon Io to your model (Jupiter has LOTS of moons, but only the four listed above are more than a hundred miles across). It should fit on this page – just find a place that doesn’t have text on it that is the correct distance from Jupiter.

Does your drawing of Jupiter seem like it’s about as many times across as your drawing of Jupiter as you calculated in part a of #5?

Yes, the model looks quite as many times as the drawing. The Jupiter drawing is actually larger than the Jupiter model.

If so, congratulations and good job! If not, then there’s been a calculation error somewhere, and you need to find it… Remember that you can consult classmates or Dr. Skelton!

Io is MUCH smaller than Jupiter, but is Io similar in size, much larger than, or much smaller than the Earth’s Moon?

Io is the fifth moon from Jupiter. Its average distance is about 262,000 miles (422,000 km) from earth. Io is locked such that the same side always faces Jupiter. Io has a mean radius of 1,131.7 miles hence making it slightly larger than Earth’s moon.

A few more subtopics before we’re done with reviewing math… First, prefixes for metric units.

The basic unit of length for the metric system is the meter. For most adults a meter is roughly the distance from the tip of your nose to the end of your outstretched arm. This distance is useful for measuring the sizes of cars and buildings, but not the size of a cell or the distance to Pluto.

The basic unit of mass is the gram. A regular paperclip is about half a gram; one of the big paperclips is about a gram and a half. A nickel has a mass of 5 g (actually 5.000 g). Useful for measuring the mass of a bug, but not the mass of an ingredient in medication or the mass of a person.

So, we add prefixes to the basic units that indicate a multiplier that makes the unit either bigger or smaller. In words, what do the following prefixes mean? (You may research this online if you need to.) What symbol (all are regular letters except for micro-, which is a Greek letter…) do we use to represent the prefix?

I’ll get you started with the first one; note that this means that a nanometer (nm) is one billionth of meter, a nanosecond (ns) is one billionth of a second, and a nanogram (ng) is one billionth of a gram!

nano-one billionthn micro- one millionth μm

milli- one thousandth mm

Using the prefixes does help us more easily represent objects that are very large and very small, but honestly, in astronomy, we are dealing with objects that are very, very massive and very, very far away. We deal with these very, very large numbers in different ways. For masses, we use scientific notation or use ratios to compare an object’s mass to the Earth’s mass or to the Sun’s mass. (You will see this in the Moons of Jupiter lab.)

For distances, however, we define two new units. For distances in the solar system, we typically use astronomical units. One astronomical unit (abbreviated AU) is equal to the average distance between the Earth and the Sun.

Jupiter is, on average, 778,600,000 km from the Sun. To find out how many AU this is, fill in the conversion below. Put Jupiter’s distance in the first blank, then complete the conversion factor with the average distance between the Earth and Sun in km (149,600,000 km, often rounded to 150,000,000 km). Cross out units that cancel, and make sure use the correct number of sig figs and the correct units in your answer.

149,600,000km

24809458636000778,600,000 km ×

150,000,000km = 7,765,237,333.3

That’s a lot easier number to get your head around, isn’t it? Even Pluto at its farthest is 49 AU, or 49 times the Earth’s distance, from the Sun.

For even farther distances, we use a unit called a light year, defined simply as the distance light travels in one year. Light travels remarkably fast – 299,800,000 meters every second! Even so, distances in space are vast – it takes light 500 seconds (8 minutes and 20 seconds) to travel from the Sun to the Earth. Light from nearby stars takes years to reach us; light from distant objects may take millions or even billions of years to get to us.

In order to figure out how large a light year is, we need two more pieces of information. One is the relationship between distance travelled, speed, and time. You’ve seen this before, I’m sure: ???????? = ????????????????.

The second thing we need is the number of seconds in a year. This is relatively easy using the conversion method you discussed in previous questions. Fill in the missing information in the conversion below, then cross out units that appear on both the bottom and the top, and then calculate. Your answer should have 5 sig figs because 365.24 days in a year is a measurement rather than a definition. (The number of hours in a day, minutes in an hour, and seconds in a minute are definitions and therefore are exact numbers, so we don’t have to worry about them when deciding what the weakest link is.) Don’t forget that your answer should have units!

1 yr ×

365.24 days

180721065405001 yr×

hrs

277050565405001 day×

min hr×

s min =

3529330-300355004361815-30035500To figure out how big a light year is, you take that number of seconds and multiply it by the speed of light. Again, remember that your answer needs to have units and the correct number of sig figs.

252984014287500287655019621500???????? = ???????????????? = 299,800 km × 365.24s = 109,498,952 km

s

That’s a big number! Did your calculator tell you (after using your own brain to figure out the correct number of significant digits and units…) 9.460 x 1012 km or 9,460,000,000,000 km? These are the same amount, just represented in different ways. In either case, a light year is over nine trillion kilometers – this is close to six trillion miles!!! And the closest star to us is over four light years away!

Watch the two scientific notation videos on iCollege. Scientific notation is also discussed on pages viii and ix of the Mathematical Review.

What is the point/purpose of scientific notation?

The purpose of scientific notation is to represent numbers that are either too small or too large to be captured.

Numbers in scientific notation are written in the form a x 10b, where a is called the coefficient and b

is the exponent.

What is the rule for what kind of number a must be?

 The whole numbers

What is the rule for what kind of number b must be?

 The integers including; the positive whole numbers, their negative counterparts, and zero.

In some sciences, there are very, very small numbers (not negative, just much smaller than 1) that need to be represented by scientific notation. We use negative exponents for these very small numbers – a negative exponent just means it belongs in the denominator of a fraction instead of the numerator. For example, 6 x 10-6 is the same as 6/106 or “six millionths”, whereas 6 x 106 is “six million”. In astronomy, though, we’re almost always dealing with very large numbers so we usually don’t need to deal with negative exponents.

Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

1,400,000 km (the Sun’s diameter) = 1.4 × 106

b. 5,980,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg (the Earth’s mass) = 5.98 x 10²⁴

c. 4,560,000,000 yr (the age of the solar system) = 4.56×108 

Write the following in regular, non-scientific-notation and then in words as you might say them (e.g. “120 trillion”).

Time of the last ice age: 1.8 x 104 years ago

187.2 which is 187 years, 2 months ago

Time when dinosaurs became extinct: 6.5 x 107 years ago

695.5 Which is 695 years and 5 months ago

Age of the universe: 1.38 x 1010 years

1393.8 years which is rounded off to 1394 years

Distance to the Moon: 3.84 x 105 km = 384 000 kilometers

Average distance between the Sun and Pluto: 5.91 x 109 km

5910000000 kilometers

Mass of the Sun: 2.0 x 1030 kg

2e+30 grams

(That last one is kind of mean, isn’t it… See what you can figure out without spending too much time – but it helps make the point why scientific notation is pretty useful, doesn’t it?)

One time you will see negative exponents is in the Moons of Jupiter lab, so a question to think about (and hopefully remember in a couple of weeks!):

Consider the numbers 1.05 x 10-3 and 9.89 x 10-4. Are these numbers fairly close to one another, or quite different? Explain your conclusion.

Hint: write them in decimal (normal, non-scientific) notation and the round them to one significant figure…

9.89 x 10-4 = 0.000989

1.05 x 10-3 = 0.00105

1.05 x 10-3 is larger than 9.89 x 10-4 based on the number of zeros after the decimal point and the number raised to the figure. -3 is greater than -4.

One final scientific notation note – when you have to do calculations with numbers in scientific notation, it is important to make sure you enter them into your calculator correctly. Your calculator has a specific way of entering scientific notation – and it really is better to use the button designed for scientific notation rather than “*10^” and then the exponent!! (The reason has to do with the way that the calculator deals with the number and order of operations.)

Usually there is either a CAPITAL E (not the lower case one – it’s something entirely different!), capital EE, or a capital EXP marked on or above one of the calculator keys. On many TI calculators the E is above the comma, so you have to press “2nd” then “,”. If you can’t find a button that seems right, e-mail Dr. Skelton a picture of your calculator or look at the calculator documentation (you can search your model online).

The E or EXP means “times ten to the”, so you would enter 2×104 into your calculator as 2E4 without any multiplication signs, 10s, or exponents. Your calculator now knows this is a single number rather than a calculation it’s supposed to do. For negative exponents, you will probably need to use the (-) button or the +/- button to let the calculator know you’re not subtracting.

What button (or sequence of buttons) does your calculator have to enter scientific notation?

MODE and Sci (Short form for Scientific mode) buttons

If your calculator returns an answer in scientific notation to you, it may not look just like we’ve been writing – instead, it will have an E (which, recall, means “times ten to the”) or just a small superscript number at the far right of the display. If your calculator says 6.05E7, what should YOU write down as your answer? Hint: It shouldn’t have an E in it…

Answer: 9.67e7

To finish, I would like you to complete a couple more unit conversion problems then do a graphing exercise.

You can use the same method of converting between units that was used even when there are more than one unit – for example, if you are travelling at 55 miles per hour, what is your speed in meters per second? You just need to concentrate on changing one unit at a time – miles to m and hours to s. First, fill in the blanks in the conversion below, cancel any units that appear on both the top and bottom, then calculate the answer. You will need to figure out what goes into the completely blank numerators based on what units need to cancel and then looking up the conversion factor.

55 mi

1371600654050019202406540500hr×

0.9hr

5min ×

55min

271907086360003300s ×

17kmm ×

1700m 17km =

Answer = 100km

3398520-266700004285615-26670000Now try one by yourself, making sure to show all your steps like in the previous problem.

The Earth travels around the Sun at a speed of 29.8 km/s. How fast is this in miles per hour?

While its speed averages out to about 29.8 km/s (18.5 mps) or 107,000 km/h (66487 mph), it actually ranges by a full km per second during the course of the year – between 30.29 km/s and 29.29 km/s (109,044 – 105,444 km/h; 67,756.8 – 65,519.864 mph)

Almost there! Just a little more about graphing!

Look at the graph of the temperature structure of Venus’ atmosphere.

Based on this figure, describe how the temperature changes with altitude on Venus.

4572000476250As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, it heats up the surface of Venus.The greenhouse effect on Venus causes the temperatures at its surface to reach 864 degrees Fahrenheit (462 degrees Celsius)

Based on this figure, what is the temperature at the surface of Venus? Explain or show mathematically how you arrived at your answer using the information in the graph.

I multiplied the highest middle and lower temperatures

How much does the temperature drop from the surface to an altitude of 100 km (just over 60 miles)?

Above 60 miles (100 km) from Earth’s surface the chemical composition of air becomes strongly dependent on altitude and the atmosphere becomes enriched with lighter gases (atomic oxygen, helium and hydrogen). 

The final exercise (yes, really!!) helps demonstrate why graphs can often demonstrate data much more clearly

Moderator Tom Miller:

Good Evening. National attention has been focused on the problems of the American Negro for the past several weeks. Major civil rights legislation from President Kennedy is now before Congress; huge demonstrations have been held across the country. Violence has erupted in many places. Last week on Florida forum we discussed the racial situation with Governor George Wallace of Alabama who tried unsuccessfully to bar the entrance of two Negro students to the University of Alabama. This week, we have invited author and playwright, James Baldwin, to express his views in this growing controversy. Mr. Baldwin is the best-selling author of several books that reflect on racial conflict. He is offered his intellectual and moral support to the cause of the American Negro and, tonight, he has interrupted his schedule in Puerto Rico, where he is writing a play, to answer questions from our panel and studio audience. Questioning Mr. Baldwin tonight will be WCKT newsman Al Dempsey and Dr. Charlton Tebeau, chairman of the history department of the University of Miami. There will also be questions from our studio audience, after this message.

To begin tonight’s program, we will ask Mr. Baldwin to state briefly if he feels the racial conflict in Alabama and Mississippi could happen here in Florida.

James Baldwin:

“Well, in my view, which I think is the view, I think, of most  American Negroes or the experience of most American Negroes, the situation in Alabama and Mississippi, which is spectacular and surprises the country, is nationwide. Not only could it happen in Florida, it could happen in New York or Chicago, Detroit or anywhere there is a significant Negro population. Because, until the day all the Negroes in this country, in one way or another, in different fashions, North or South, are kept in what is, in effect, prison. In the North, one lives in ghettos and, in the South, the situation is so intolerable as to become sinister not knowing for Mississippi or for Alabama, or for Florida,but for the whole future of this country. White people are surprised, I think, at the vehemence of the Negro feeling and the depth of the danger, but I don’t think it has caught any Negro by surprise. One has been in a terrible, terrible situation for a very, very long time.”

MODERATOR:

“Now, to our panel, Mr. Dempsey.”

Al Dempsey:

“Well, why could it happen? Why does it have to be violence? Why can’t it be something other than violence?

James Baldwin:

“Well, part of the reason is one is doing one’s best to avoid violence. One of the reasons it could happen that way is because for so long, four hundred years, the American republic, in general, has ignored and denied the whole situation that Negroes have operated within – to be a source of cheap labor, for example, north or south, is to be, in effect, oppressed. Now, the oppression is bad enough. But the myth that the country’s created about the object of the oppression: the myth about the negro being happy in his place, is something the republic has managed to believe and, so that in addition to the fact of the oppression, one has also the fact that within the country for one hundred years there’s been a way of life occurring in the country, which most of the country knows nothing about. And it’s reflected, for example, in the way Negroes talk to each other. It’s a kind of language which does not really exist on what we like to think of as a major level of the American culture.”

Al Dempsey:

“But hasn’t there been a lethargy on the part of the American negro for that 100 year period too, along with the white supremacy added to it?”

James Baldwin:

“Um, I don’t think so. No. I think that’s, again, part of the myth. One has to remember, after all – I may sound very rude – but you have to remember who writes the history books and toward what end? I have never known a lethargic Negro. I’ve known demoralized Negroes. But that is not the same thing. The truth is that the Negroes have been fighting for this hundred years to obtain their rights and the country has ignored it. And the technique of the country has been mainly to accommodate it or to contain it, but never really to change the situation. And what has happened in our time, in these last few years, is that it’s no longer possible to contain it and the technique of accommodation has broken down. For the first time, really, the situation is now in the open. No American can ignore it, as has been true, let us say up until 1954.

Al Dempsey:

“All right. Why did it happen? Why do you think it happened? In 1954.”

James Baldwin:

“Well, the one thing, what happened in the South is that when the Supreme Court desegregated schools, or tried to desegregate schools, the South, which until that time had really ignored pleas, on the part the NAACP or responsible Negro leaders, to do something about creating a situation in the South…they were not asking for desegregation but to honor the separate but equal clause. And, the schools of the South were not equal.

Now, this meant, after ’54, the South which had ignored the necessities on the part of Negroes to be educated suddenly what leaped into that breach is now building schools for Negroes to keep the schools segregated. And this meant, in effect, that if I were a college president in the Deep South at a state college, that I had lost my position. I could no longer bargain. I couldn’t…I no longer had to go to the governor to get a new dormitory or a new chemistry lab. The governor was all too anxious to give me a new chemistry lab. That meant that I no longer had any effect, no power whatever. I couldn’t guarantee the facility of my students. The bargaining table had suddenly disappeared. This is what really happened, I think.”

Al Dempsey:

“Well, that was 1954. This is 1963. All of a sudden we have violence. That’s what we’re talking about here. Are you Negro leaders, and let’s consider you one of the Negro leaders…Are Negro leaders encouraging conditions of violence?”

James Baldwin:

“No. No responsible Negro leader can possibly – all the people I work with I know, are working as hard as they know how to channelize an energy which they know is there in order for it not to become violence. But, to be candid, there is something amazing, really, in the fact that the Negro has not been violent sooner, you know? There is something very impressive, in my view, in the ways which Negroes have managed to deal with this situation. And, the kind of discipline, the kind of interior discipline demanded of an adolescent to sit-in and to boycott and to undergo all the things one has to undergo is an extraordinary thing. And, if it were true that was a new Negro, that he’d never been seen before, that would be a miracle.

What has really happened is these people have been coming a long, long time. In the 30’s, for example, people like Roy Wilkins in the South, as hobos tried to organize unions and being beaten, and clubbed, and murdered. The Republic ignored all this. But every Negro child growing up knew something about it. It is the Republic, I repeat, that has been captured by its own myth of the subservient Negro and now is surprised to discover that the myth was never true.”

Dr. Charlton W. Tebeau:

“Mr. Baldwin, are you saying possibly that if “separate but equal” facilities had been provided for Negroes, that none of this might have happened?”

James Baldwin:

“No, I am not saying that at all. I didn’t mean to suggest that. But I did mean to suggest that the NAACP at that point, was not at that point trying to change the law, really, but doing, again, what Negroes are always trying to do, which is try and save the children. To try to get, to invest the children in the morale, and you can’t teach a child if the situation in which he is studying is intolerable. We all know that. Now, it is also true that you cannot really – no Negro child who is going to a segregated school, which costs millions of dollars, is fooled about why he’s there. He’s there because white people want him there and no place else. And you cannot educate a child in that context, either. You see?”

Dr. Tebeau:

“It seems to me also that while you are asking white people to change their estimate of the Negro – raise their estimate of the Negro – you are also saying to the Negro he ought to do something to raise his estimate of himself. Isn’t that true?

James Baldwin:

“It’s one of the great problems, let me put it this way, of being an American Negro in the first place; that you are taught, really, the entire weight of the republic teaches you to despise yourself. All the standards, when you open your eyes and look at the world, you look out at it, there is nothing reflecting you. As far as we can tell, for example, from television programs, there are no Negroes at all, or most Hollywood productions. The country has arbitrarily declared that kinky hair, dark skin, wide nose, and big lips is a hideous thing to be afflicted with. Now, the Negro parent, in this case, let’s say I am a Negro parent, has to use everything he can find to counteract the republic’s attempt to diminish this child. It is inevitable then, that when a boy becomes 20 or a girl becomes 20, they are in great battle inside to release themselves from what the country calls them. Do you see? Now, this estimate of oneself is a very difficult thing to change, but this is a part of the battle one has got to do that and, incidentally, by no means incidentally, I think that white Americans, themselves, assume something else. They assume that I live in a segregated society and they don’t realize that they live in a segregated society – that we do – and that the white child is really just as victimized by this peculiar medieval system as any Negro child. And what is worse for the Black child, the white child doesn’t know it and his whole attitude towards the world and toward reality is romantic.”

Dr. Tebeau:

“If I may have one more question… Why are you as doubtful as you are about what liberals are going to do for the cause of the Negro?”

James Baldwin:

“Because I’ve – I don’t mean to sound cruel – there are exceptions, but in general, my experience with liberals, they have attitudes, and they have all the proper attitudes. But they have no real convictions, and when the chips are down and you expect them to deliver and what you thought they felt they somehow are not there.”

Dr. Tebeau:

“Is that your estimate of the Kennedy administration to an extent?”

James Baldwin:

“My estimate of the Kennedy administration, part of my estimate of the Kennedy administration, is that, first of all, the Kennedy brothers, like almost all the white Americans, even with the best will in the world, know very little – in fact, I would hazard, until recently, virtually nothing about what we like to call the Negro problem. You know, most of the white Americans I’ve ever encountered – really, you know – had a Negro friend or a Negro maid or somebody in high school, but they never, you know, or rarely, after school was over or whatever, came to my kitchen. You know, we were segregated from the schoolhouse door. Therefore, he doesn’t know – he really does not know – what it was like for me to leave my house, leave school, and go back to Harlem. He doesn’t know how Negroes live and it comes as a great surprise to the Kennedy brothers and everybody else in the country, I’m certain, again, you know, that like most white Americans I’ve encountered, I am sure they have nothing against Negroes. That’s really not the question. The question really is a kind of apathy and ignorance, which is the price we pay for segregation. That’s what segregation means. You don’t know what is happening on the other side of the wall because you don’t want to know.”

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