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A.J. Ayer and the Verification Farcical

INTRODUCTION

This essay will consist in an exposition and criticism of the Verification Principle, as expounded by A.J. Ayer in his book Language, Truth and Logic. Ayer, wrote this book in 1936, but also wrote a new introduction to the second edition ten years later. The latter amounted to a revision of his earlier theses on the principle.It is to both accounts that this essay shall be referring.

Firstly, I shall expound the verification principle. I shall then show that its condition of significant types is inexhaustible, and that this makes the principle inapplicable. In doing so, I shall have exposed serious inconsistencies in Ayer’s theory of meaning, which is a necessary part of his modified verification principle.

I shall also expound Ayer’s theory of knowledge, as related in his book. I will show this theory to contain logical errors, making his modified version of the principle flawed from a second angle.

The relationship of this essay with the two prior essays of this series can be understood from Ayer’s Preface to the First Edition of his book:

The views which are put forward in this treatise derive from the doctrines of Bertrand Russell and Wittgenstein.

For background interest, Language, Truth and Logic was written after Ayer had attended some of the meetings of the Vienna Circle, in the 1930’s.

Friedrich Waismann and Moritz Schlick headed these logical positivists of Vienna. Their principle doctrine can be said to have been founded in the meetings they had with Wittgenstein and their interpretation of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Ayer’s book expounds and, in his view, improves on the principle doctrine of the Vienna Circle ‘the verification principle’. Waismann and Schlick adopted this principle after it was first given to them by Wittgenstein himself.

Waismann recorded the conversation, where Wittgenstein stated:

If I say, for example, ‘Up there on the cupboard there is a book’, how do I set about verifying it? Is it sufficient if I glance at it, or if I look at it from different sides, or if I take it into my hands, touch it, open it, turn its leaves, and so forth? There are two conceptions here. One of them says that however I set about it, I shall never be able to verify the proposition completely. A proposition always keeps a back door open, as it were. Whatever we do, we are never sure that we are not mistaken.

The other conception, the one I want to hold, says, ‘No, if I can never verify the sense of a proposition completely, then I cannot have meant anything by the proposition either. Then the proposition signifies nothing whatsoever.’

In order to determine the sense of a proposition, I should have to know a very specific procedure for when to count the proposition as verified.

He, later in life, told the Moral Science Club in Cambridge:

I used at one time to say that, in order to get clear how a sentence is used, it was a good idea to ask oneself the question: ‘How would one try to verify such an assertion?’ But that’s just one way among others of getting clear about the use of a word or sentence. For example, another question which it is often very useful to ask oneself is: ‘How is this word learned?’ ‘How would one set about teaching a child to use this word?’ But some people have turned this suggestion about asking for the verification into a dogma- as if it’d been advancing a theory about meaning.

So, Wittgenstein was merely proposing that the verification of an assertion was one way amongst others to “get clear” how a sentence is used, or how that assertion is used. For, as he tells us in his later philosophy, identifying their uses is how meaning is attributed to expressions.

However, in this essay I shall expose the problems with the verification principle expounded by A.J. Ayer. I shall show why these problems lead the principle to be invalid as a philosophy, and useless as a practical tool in the situations of life it was boasted to have been suited to.

THE ELIMINATION OF CHAPTER ONE

To start the fray, I shall pick on a disturbing piece of wisdom that one runs into at the very beginning of chapter one, “The Elimination of Metaphysics.” Here, Ayer wishes to justify the application of the verification principle by showing its use as a tool in the elimination process that would eventually reveal the true purpose and method of philosophical inquiry.

Ayer’s ‘linchpin’ assumption is:

he metaphysician is talking nonsense when he claims to have knowledge of a reality transcendental of the phenomenal world.

If by ‘phenomenal world’ he means the world of the senses, then he denies his own mind. The mind itself is known, is real in the sense of its contents (thoughts) being real. Yet, it is not a part of the phenomenal, sensed, world.

Therefore, are we talking nonsense when we claim to have knowledge of our emotions, desires, and our self-awareness? And if such knowledge is nonsense, then all the better for us to express it, for nonsense is clearly understandable by these terms.

Surely, then, there is a mental reality, in the above sense, quite distinct from being phenomenal, in the Kantian sense.

All this seems to go without saying, and after applying Ayer’s idea of nonsense to our non-phenomenal mental contents, must we conclude that Ayer has ‘lost his mind’, so to speak?

Of course not! Ayer is merely wetting our appetite; showing us the temper of what is to come later in his book.

I comment on this early, introductory stage because, together with my retort, the spirit of the essay is subtly summarized. Ayer, here, is betraying his bias as an empirical philosopher from the outset, by attributing sense only to phenomenal expressions.

In his book he is merely trying to eliminate nonsense propositions by applying a hand-made law to them, which is not comprehensive enough to include some things which that law refers to but do have sense. This makes it inapplicable and practically useless.

When Ayer asks such a claimant of knowledge transcending the phenomenal from what premises he draws his knowledge, he thereby begins the elimination. He must then, also ask of himself which premises he has for the knowledge that he is happy, sad, confused or, in fact, asking a question mentally (not just vocally).

EXPOSITION OF THE VERIFICATION PRINCIPLE

The verification principle I wish to discuss here is that of the Vienna Circle, as it is expounded by A.J. Ayer in his book Language, Truth and Logic.

This exposition includes a modification by Ayer, and additional points made ten years later on.

Explicitly, the verification principle, as regarded in this essay, is a theory that tries to establish a criterion for meaningfulness.

Although, some may argue that this does not commit the theorist to a theory of meaning, per se, I submit that any theory which involves assertions about the nature of meaning, has tautologically proposed a theory of meaning. Thus, my definition of ‘theory of x’ includes ‘the discussion of the nature of x.’

The aforementioned, verification principle contains assertions that discuss the nature of meaning, yet is originally intended as the answer to Wittgenstein’s question, “How would one try to verify an assertion?”

For Wittgenstein, the verification of a proposition was required for a clear understanding of that proposition’s meaning.

For Ayer and the Vienna Circle, it was:

The criterion which we use to test the genuineness of apparent statements of fact.

In effect, the verification principle of the Vienna Circle would reveal whether a proposition was meaningful or meaningless. It was a new Humean Fork.

A proposition was meaningful if the conditions of determining its truth or falsehood could be established. A proposition was meaningless if such conditions could not be established.

We inquire in every case what observations would lead us to answer the question, one way or another?

Ayer modified the principle by adding a clause. A proposition could still be meaningful if it could be shown verifiable in principle, in cases where the actual verification was impossible, such as “there are mountains on the farther side of the moon”.

This meant putting forward the conditions by which the truth or falsity could be determined.

The other kind of proposition accepted as meaningful was the tautological proposition.

With Hume’s Fork in his hand, Ayer declared that if it is not a verifiable proposition and not a tautology, then it is mere pseudo-proposition, factually and literally insignificant, and therefore meaningless.

THE PROBLEMS OF PROPOSITION

The first terminological problem we run into with such a principle is the nature of the ‘proposition’. What is a proposition? Is Ayer telling us that the only meaningful expressions are putative? Answer: Yes. He is saying just that.

What about questions, commands, suggestions, desires, gestures, expressions containing sarcasm, and intonation? Surely that these types of sentences and expressions are meaningful goes without saying. No one would admit that any of these types of sentences were nonsense in virtue of their form.

As we shall see, later on, they are not significant in virtue of their form, as it is with all apparent expressions. It is not the syntax of a sentence that gives it significance. It is the content. The content should be qualitative: verifiable empirically or tautological.

Ten years after it was written, Ayer comes to the defense of his ‘propositions’, in the second edition of Language, Truth and Logic, with a rather weak argument given in the appendix.

After making the mistake of admitting propositions to be expressed by some sentences, he summarizes the principle thus:

The principle of verification is supposed to furnish a criterion by which it can be determined whether or not a sentence is literally meaningful. (My Italics)

And to get himself into even more trouble, he continues,

A simple way to formulate it would be to say that a sentence had a literal meaning if and only if the proposition it expressed was either analytic or empirically verifiable. (My Italics)

Instead of trying to show that some statements make no propositions, thereby avoiding the problem of making “Hey, Jude!” into a truth-valued proposition, he persists with the idea that all sentences propose something.

His argument for this, as found in the updated appendix, goes as follows.

Ayer states later on that he has tried to avoid the problem of any sentence having to be meaningful in virtue of its proposition having a truth value, by speaking of putative propositions, in which a sentence purports something, and can be true or false.

A few lines later, he admits that not all sentences are putative (His theory of meaning jumps back and forth, from ‘some’ to ‘all’, and is clearly unreliable).

The problem is now, how do we know when a sentence is purporting something? Is it not true that all sentences admit a truth indirectly? If I say, “Go to your room!” to a boy, am I not implying that there is a ‘room’ to ‘go to’? Is there not, therefore, a hidden proposition in many sentences that are thought not to be putative?

If this is the case then we shall need another criterion to determine which sentences these are. And such a criterion may have too much room for interpretation; am I speaking of a metaphorical ‘room’?

Perhaps this is why Ayer is not satisfied with the term ‘putative’. He states in the second edition, that:

the use of words like ‘putative’ and ‘purports’ seems to bring in psychological considerations into which I do not wish to enter.

Ayer, in his second edition, is clearly not confident about his own argument, but only alludes to its abandonment by offering these weak arguments as valid replacements and then rejecting them himself, as is shown above.

His next argument is even more absurd: to apply the verification principle directly onto all sentences, whether putative or not.

As we have seen this leads us to accept the oddball fact that questions, commands, and suggestions are literally meaningless if they are neither true nor false. In addition, whether they contain a hidden putative proposition must be decided by another criterion that has not yet been developed. Even so, if such a criterion was developed and applied, too much room for interpretation would result due to the psychological contingent of words such as ‘putative’ and ‘purport’. For ‘purport’ relies to heavily on a condition of the mind — a mental state. A feeling of assertiveness is a different species from asserting something. One relies on a state-of-mind, an attitude or belief; the other states the case, as it is given and not as it is desired to be.

OTHER FORMS OF SIGNIFICANCE

One of the reasons why the verification principle fails to be applicable is its erroneous theory of meaning. The principle considers there to be only two types of significant expression that are neither meaningless nor nonsense:

Literally significant expressions are those that express either a tautology or a proposition, which is capable, at least in principle, of being verified.

Factually significant expressions are such, if, and only if, we can know how to verify the proposition which it purports to express. Moreover, what observations would lead us under certain conditions, to accept the proposition as being true, or reject it as being false.

Neither of these types of significant expressions allows for moral, religious or even mental significance. I am saying here that there are some expressions, which are significant, that do not belong to either of Ayer’s categories. The error of Ayer’s theory of meaning is that it is not exhaustive. In other words, the options we are given are less than what are available.

There are more than two types of significant expression, and significance does not consist in only factual content and semantics.

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Gestures, commands, requests, inclinations, verbal minims… the list of types of expressions of thought that have significance to us is very long. They are significant in virtue of their ‘signifying’, or standing for, x.

The verification principle does not allow for these, as though only the objects of sense experience and tautological elements can be signified. The verification principle states that such expressions are not significant, and therefore nonsensical and meaningless. I will now show that this is not the case, thereby proving the theory of meaning, which is essential to the verification principle, as erroneous and making the principle inapplicable because it is not exhaustive.

The assumption, made by Ayer and the Vienna Circle, is that “sentences are either tautological or empirical in their significance.” However, this is not exhaustive.

Ayer, himself, does admit that ethical statements, although having not expressed a literally significant proposition, are not therefore nonsense, since they do possess another kind of significance:

The sentence expressing it may be emotionally significant to him; but it is not literally significant.

It is this admission that undoes all his work hitherto. If there are other types of significance then he admits that his theory of meaning is not exhaustive. This leads him to admit further that the verification principle is applicable to only some significant expressions, annulling the ‘either or’ that so willingly attempted to eliminate expressions of ethics, religion and metaphysics.

It may be argued that the above admission, being the basis for Ayer’s emotive theory of evaluative discourse, is an unmasking move to show that supposedly factual statements are merely expressions of feeling- emotive expressions.

If a statement is significant in virtue of its signifying an x, where x is that which the statement refers to, then if x is a feeling, rather than a thought, the significance of feelings is possible. The significance of feeling in language could be called an emotively significant statement.

Ayer’s mistake was in thinking that meaning can only be attributed to expressions that represent an empirical fact or a logically tied set of concepts, as are found in the tautology.

So, what makes other expressions significant? You could ask, ‘In what sense are these other sentences significant?’ Well, they are significant in virtue of your ability to understand them. If you understand a sentence, then your understanding is that to which the sentence refers. However, this rules out false sentences, which may be insignificant but disguised by the fact that you cannot understand all sentences; some genuine sentences are difficult to understand.

Let us look at a common target of the principle: ethical expressions.

Ethical statements such as ‘Murder is wrong’ are significant by the fact that we understand them. However, they are not significant in the factual sense, but the emotive sense: they are emotively significant.

We do not wonder what anyone means when emotive statements are made. We do not hear it as a muddle of incomprehensible speech, and wonder whether such noises ‘signify’ anything. We understand that the person is expressing a certain attitude or feeling about the subject of murder. The person is stating, implicitly, that they would like no one to conduct such an act, and would not like to themselves.

Sentences such as these signify feelings and attitudes. They do not have truth-value, they cannot be empirically tested, and they are not meant to be. Ayer may also assert this, but he goes on to suggest that they are also meaningless.

They are not meaningless. They express a different species of thought, an emotive thought. The thought is signified by words. The words have meaning in themselves. This is the criterion for significance.

Therefore, moral sentences are significant when they express a feeling or attitude about certain behaviour. The reason why verificationists like Ayer want to reject them is because they don’t fit into there tight little theory; they cannot be verified. If it were possible to verify feelings, then statements about such would become meaningful.

THE SECOND EDITION, A SECOND CHANCE

We have already discussed the major themes put forward by the second edition in the many references to them hitherto. However, we have not yet looked at a further argument Ayer has in defense of his theory of meaning.

The argument goes like this:

Up until now, Ayer has wanted to avoid denying the possibility of sentences that carry meaning without propositions. Therefore, he puts forward the following, as a second attempt:

The solution that I prefer is to introduce a new technical term; and for this purpose I shall make use of the familiar word ‘statement’.

So, now Ayer has pulled a U-turn and allowed expressions to be significant without being nonsense, by avoiding the attribution of literal meaning to all sentences. The term ‘statement’ is that sentence which, although does not contain a truth-valued proposition, does express something in its significance. Its significance is held in virtue of its being ‘indicative’.

Indicative sentences- now ‘statements’- have the option of holding literal meaning, in the case of the proposition, or not.

Not holding literal meaning, by definition, they remain significant.

This, to me, is obviously a complex attempt at escaping the fact that verification principle is not applicable. What it does not apply to are forms of significance that cannot be grouped into the empirical/tautological pigeon-holes that Ayer has created.

Ayer is now logically tied to admit that there are other meaningful expressions that are signified in sentence form, and have no explicit truth-value (i.e. the proposition). This is of course his ‘statement’.

To say that there are ‘indicative sentences’, which may express a meaning that has no truth-value, is to admit of other forms of significance, to admit that the verification principle is limited in its application.

However, my main contention with the principle is not its problem with terminology use, or its theory of meaning. I am concerned with the empirical features verification.

CRITIQUE OF PURE EMPIRICISM

I would now like to look at the empirical features of the verification principle. I shall show that statements of observation, empirical, and synthetic alike, may not necessarily require the prerequisite of a truth-value in order to have meaning.

I shall then show that Ayer’s theory of sense content is redundant.

The verification principle requires thus:

that a sentence is factually significant to any given person, if, and only if, he knows how to verify the proposition which it purports to express- that is, if he knows what observations would lead him, under certain conditions, to accept the proposition as being true, or reject it as being false.

Firstly, two problems:

In what would these observations consist? Propositions of factual significance are surely assertive expressions, which reflect, or stand for, the data of particular senses. However, why place a truth-value on such an expression? If I see green grass, and state, “this grass is green” am I not stating something that is not held, by myself or anyone else who is not a philosopher, to be dubious?

Is it not that my statement is nothing more than the expression of what my senses tell me they detect? If this is so then the notion of applying a truth-value to such a statement is invalid. For surely, when I make a statement that expresses an observation it will always be true of my senses. It will be true in the sense that I am not lying to myself, but “truth” still seems an inappropriate term for such statements. Truth-value, therefore, does not apply to expressions signifying sense-data.

Ayer’s ‘truth’ is meant in the sense that my statement of observation, my proposition having factual meaning, could be verified as to whether it was indeed an observation. However, in what would the verification consist?

Would this not be another statement of observation by which to compare mine with? For surely if I state that “green men are on the far side of the moon”, and an observation of these green men at such a place would lead to the same species of statement, “yes, there are green men on the farther side of the moon”, warranting, itself, verification. Is this how Ayer determines meaning?

So, by Ayer’s account we would either continue an infinite regression of verifications of the same statements, or take the second verifying statement as the deciding factor of the first statement’s meaning, when both statements express the same thing; their reference is identical.

If we do admit truth-value of sense-data, can we trust our senses? How do we tell a real observation from an illusion?

To answer these questions, Ayer requires a theory of knowledge, and it is this theory that falls apart after close inspection.

First, I shall outline the theory. Then I shall show its principle theses to be invalid.

The result will be that the factual significance of Ayer’s verified sentences will always contain the possibility of being factually wrong. They may be meaningful, in virtue of their truth-value, but you would never know whether they were correspondingly true or false.

So how does Ayer determine the validity of his empirical propositions?

Empirical propositions… may be confirmed or discredited in actual sense experience.

It is admitted that no empirical proposition is certain, but that is not what we are concerned with here. We are concerned with knowing whether an empirical proposition is actually being experienced during its verification.

How do we know that the physical manifestation of an empirical proposition is actually being represented, and not an illusion or drug-induced delusion?

To answer this, we return to the question, “What is the criterion by which we test the validity of an empirical proposition?”

Answer:

we test the validity of an empirical hypothesis by seeing whether it actually fulfills the function it is designed to fulfill.

Ayer is an empiricist. When it comes to the factual content of a proposition, Ayer takes the position that this content consists in terms of sense content. The physical object of the proposition is not itself known; we are only privy to a second-hand knowing by means of our senses. Our senses ‘see’ the real object, and we ‘know’ what our senses give us.

We define a sense content not as the object, but as a part of a sense experience. And from this it follows that the existence of a sense content always entails the existence of a sense experience.

So, when I see a table and state such, my assertion entails the sense contents from which the term ‘table’ is logically constructed. The sense contents being so entailed allow my assertion to be a proposition containing factual content, and therefore meaningful.

However, since the sense contents are not the objects themselves, the verification of expression containing them leads to the truth or falsity coherently, rather than correspondingly. The truth-value of factually or literally significant propositions is established by appealing to its logical compatibility with other sense content containing propositions. Since the reality of sense experiences is subjective, their truth must also be subjective.

By admitting that the objective world, which we cannot know but by the senses, is never expressed by propositions, but only indirectly via the sense contents, we must admit that the verification of the objective world can have no truth-value attributed to it.

Nevertheless, the verification principle demands that an empirical hypothesis be testable, in principle or practice. Once more, this test would only lead to more expressions containing ‘sense contents’. What is more, such a test could only consist in the comparison of one subjective set of propositions with another.

In effect, the verification of an empirical hypothesis would establish coherent truth, since correspondent truth is transcendental. Therefore, the phenomenology of the verification principle is incompatible with Ayer’s empiricism.

CONCLUSION

The verification principle was a method of establishing the meaning of certain expressions. It was then turned and used to eliminate the whole of metaphysics, which also took with it ethics, aesthetics and religion. It seemed that nothing was left but the obvious world of facts or the nothing world of tautologies.

In the end, the verification principle helped destroy not just speculative philosophy, but speculation itself. The world of philosophy is a far different place today, thanks to the influence of A.J. Ayer and the Vienna Circle. Their influence, in my view, dominates mainstream philosophy, in its academia, its publications, associations, and societies.

Their ideas changed the way we think about philosophy — about its nature and purpose. The texts written in their day are the textbooks of today.

The language of fact and tautology rule, sixty years on.

I wish that I could have written from a more speculative angle, but the verification principle seemed to come with its own problems built in.

Although, philosophy has been deemed by Ayer to not be a source of speculative truth, I hope that I have shown that it is speculation, and not just logic and correct language use, that inspires the mind of the philosopher.

If we are to believe, as Ayer does, that philosophy should consist in nothing but logical analysis, then it is hard to see how philosophy could have come about at all. Some philosophers say that it is not the business of philosophy to concern itself with metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, religion, or any speculation. They miss the point that it is themselves who expend such considerable amounts of literature in order to say so.

By trying to convince us that Plato, Nietzsche, and the hordes of nonsense philosophers in between, had got it all wrong, these very philosophers make the broadest and grandest of speculations themselves.

Breakthrough Technologies for the Biorefining of Organic Solid and

Liquid Wastes

Name

Course

Institution AfilliationDate

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is the name for the waste produced by residences, businesses, institutions, and industrial enterprises (MSW.) The waste stream from industrial processes, construction, demolition, sewerage, mining, and agriculture is not regarded as MSW (Nathanson &Schneider, 2015.) The MSW may be classified as hazardous waste or non-hazardous waste depending on its origin and the other materials it has come into contact with. The management of MSW has a lot of advantages. Without adequate management of the MSW life cycle, we run the risk of experiencing ecological and environmental issues, as well as air and soil pollution and contaminated ground and surface water supplies.

Historically, waste dumps served as a breeding ground for rats and insects that carried diseases including the plague, typhoid, and dysentery (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015.) Because of their unsanitary conditions, potential fire threats, and wind-blown material across the surrounding area, open rubbish dumps were not only a source of rodents and insects but were also seen as a public nuisance (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015.)

When MSW is mentioned, it alludes to the different objects, including trash that we place outside for pickup on the designated weekly trash day. There are distinctions between refuse, garbage, rubbish, and trash if we look at MSW in greater detail. Weekly curbside pickup from private residences is regarded as refuse, which is made up of both garbage and rubbish. The term “garbage” refers to highly decomposing organic food waste, including eggshells, vegetable and fruit peels, and meat scraps. Garbage is described as everything that cannot be recycled, including textiles, wood, glass, rubber, metal, and paper (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015.) Mattresses, televisions, refrigerators, and couches are examples of large parts that need particular handling techniques and are frequently referred to as trash (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015). It is crucial to comprehend these distinctions when comparing the costs of various MSW systems and recycling options.

To maximize the energy and value, various methods might be needed due to the complexity of the different solid and liquid wastes’ chemical, physical, and biological features. the recycling of garbage. When a waste is managed and used, its physical and chemical characteristics change. Sludge is created during the treatment of wastewater, for instance. The three streams of oil, water, and dry particles that make up this scum from a MWW treatment facility may be separated. To address the fresh streams and states, further procedures must be implemented. This brings up the topic of bio refining, which has generated considerable attention in the area of generating energy from biomass.

The extra benefit of lowering MSW’s volume and weight by 95% and 75%, respectively, through incineration, a time-tested and reliable method of waste disposal (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015.) The destruction of dangerous compounds in the garbage by the intense heat of incineration is another advantage of burning MSW. The production of smoke pollution and the related expenditures of adhering to legal standards for air pollution control are two drawbacks of incineration. Fly and bottom ash produced by incineration are toxic when inhaled. This same ash can be treated physically or chemically to help with dissipation, and recently, this treated ash has been used in road construction projects.

In a controlled environment, composting causes MSW to decompose. Not a mechanical or chemical process, but a biological one (Nathanson & Schneider, 2015.) The amount of MSW can be significantly reduced through composting. 2013’s Sussman Mulch, which can be reused in gardens and other inland landscaping purposes, is the end result of the composting process. Composting the soil improves the soil’s texture, adds structure, and offers nutrients, all of which serve to lower watering expenses.

Oily wastes are made up of fat, oil, and grease (FOG), which can come from a variety of sources, such as wasted cooking oil, MWW scum, food processing scum, grocery store and warehouse wastewater scum, and more. Drainage systems are clogged by oily contaminants that are collected in wastewater. Aside from that, they might be harmful to both human and environmental health. Normally, oily wastes are managed by AD, either through landfilling or the creation of low energy-density biogas; this creates a substantial environmental danger. Due to the strong demand for renewable biodiesel created by using virgin vegetable oil as a feedstock, the opportunity to use oily waste for this purpose is now available but is becoming fairly expensive for the biodiesel industry.

Reference

Chen, P., Anderson, E., Addy, M., Zhang, R., Cheng, Y., Peng, P., … & Ruan, R. (2018). Breakthrough technologies for the biorefining of organic solid and liquid wastes. Engineering, 4(4), 574-580.

Chen, P., Xie, Q., Addy, M., Zhou, W., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., … & Ruan, R. (2016). Utilization of municipal solid and liquid wastes for bioenergy and bioproducts production. Bioresource technology, 215, 163-172.

A Young Business Person

They say that necessity is the mother of invention. I think that this is true. There is a possibility that being a businessperson is not I skill that I was born having but rather instilled. Many kids have to wait up to high school or higher levels to understand their interest. Well, that was not me. It took me only seven years of my life to understand that I could succeed in business. When I was seven years old, and at primary school, my classmates had pocket money. I was not that lucky, and I only had money for breakfast. This made me think of ways I could earn pocket money. It dawned to me that cartoon sticks were popular among my classmates. So using my breakfast money, I would buy cartoon sticks and later sell them to my classmates. This way I was at par with my classmates.

From that tender age, I was certain that business was my interest. My family has not been fortunate and y parents have to struggle to bring my siblings and me up. That is why, when I was growing I had to come up with other ideas that would assist me to raise money for my upkeep. Despite my tender age, I would have a business venture that in most cases would lift a portion of the burden of my parents. In accordance to this, I have had to work in various places. At times, I have had to assist my employer to make business decisions concerning their business. One of my employers, when I was working part time, told me that if I concentrated on my studies I would be excellent in business. To date, I take the utterances of my employer seriously.

Despite having prior knowledge that I need to attend business school, the sentiments of my employer did confirm that. Another attribute that I have is that of perseverance I wanted to become a businessperson, which had the meaning that I had to access business education. My parents were under financial constraints, and I had to assist them soon. The only way that would be possible was by going to school and improving on my business skills. That way I would join a large company and work as their business consultant. After a short period, I wanted to start my own businesses since I was certain that I could succeed. That is why am currently seeking admission that will assist me realize this dream, and after some research, this is the ideal school for me.

My father always told me to find who I was and maintain that. At that point, I was sure that I was a businessperson. That is why I had to quit a part time job at a restaurant. There was a conviction inside of me that I should join a business school, and pursue my goals. After joining PCC UNA-USA Student Alliance clubs, which have chocolate selling activities, I did learn to make more for the club, and myself through selling chocolates. The more I would sell chocolate, the more I grew an interest in business. This is the reason am pursuing a course that will lead to certification of my interest. Am sure that I will through this education, I can become better and that this profession can allow me to assist my siblings and parents.

Malpractice And The Nurse Practitioner

Introduction

The importance of nurse practitioners in the healthcare sector can never be underestimated. They are primarily charged with the responsibility of treating both mental and physical ailments via all-inclusive history taking, tests, as well as undertaking physical tests for interpretation. In addition, they can offer a diagnosis and make recommendations pertaining to varied chronic and acute ailments within the range of their practice, as well as offer proper treatments for patients such making medical prescriptions (Noland & Carl, 2006) However, there are instances, in the course of undertaking their duties, when they are charged with medical malpractice. Medical malpractice may be related to routine visits that a patient makes to a practitioner, stays in the long-term care facilities or even surgical procedures and prescriptions that they are given. The term is used to refer to negligence that healthcare providers or medical professionals commit in the course of their duties to the patient (Noland & Carl, 2006). It is worth noting that malpractice would only occur in instances where the result of such negligence harms the patient. In instances where a claim is levied against a healthcare provider or medical professional, the entity or individual against whom the claim has been made would undergo judgment on varied aspects pertaining to the care that they delivered including their professionalism, competence, care provided, as well as the manner in which the elements compare to the competence and training level that they have (Noland & Carl, 2006). On the same note, the medical facility or healthcare professional would be judged against the actions of other medical professionals who have previously acted in good judgment, as well as a high standard of care in the same or similar cases (Noland & Carl, 2006). In cases where the case is incomparable or is not up to the standards of care that is offered by other healthcare professionals, the claim would potentially be actionable.

Case study

In the case provided, the plaintiff was a 27 year old female who was receiving physical therapy after undergoing a surgical procedure on her ankle. The nurse practitioner had tried to relieve the pain of the plaintiff by applying a hot pack to the affected area. In addition, the plaintiff was given some medications to relieve his pain. The documentation done by the nurse practitioner in the plaintiff’s record showed that the hot pack had the right temperature and was applied for the appropriate duration for heat treatment. However, there existed no documentation showing that the skin of the plaintiff had been checked in the course of the treatment. Nevertheless, the plaintiff had not complained of any discomfort in the course of or even after the treatment. After leaving the facility, the client reported that there was a burn at the site where heat treatment had been done on her ankle. Photographs taken on the site showed a dime-sized severe burn at the ankle, with the client alleging that he was experiencing severe pain, inability to stand, restricted movement of the ankle, as well inability to walk and sit for an extended period. In addition, she complained that the palliatives administered to her were triggering allergic reactions in her body including insomnia, extreme fever, constipation and skin rashes. On the same note, the plaintiff alleged that the severe scarring emanating from the burn hindered him from continuing with the customary habit of attending a gym, walking 5 miles a day or even enjoying the beach. This resulted in the inability to undertake regular activities thanks to the pain, as well as the embarrassment emanating from the scaring, the rashes, and the significant weight gain from her inactivity.

As much as there exist no clear departure from what may be considered standard of care, it is evident that the plaintiff had a severe burn that led to some functional alteration, as well as scarring. In addition, it is evident that the burns and scarring emanated from the heat treatment that the nurse practitioner applied on the plaintiff’s ankle after the plaintiff had undergone a surgical procedure. As much as the defendant had undertaken the appropriate treatment within the appropriate period, he was liable considering that there existed no documentation explaining the severe burn suffered by the patient, or indicating that the defendant nurse practitioner had specifically checked the skin of the patient prior to, in the course of, as well as after applying the heat treatment (Budetti, 2005).

Varied defense options are available to the nurse practitioner in this case. While it may be true that the client or plaintiff had suffered some allergies from the medications that were administered as pain killers, it is evident that the client had not indicated such allergies in giving his medical history. This is an often-neglected responsibility of the patient. It is always imperative that the client informs the nurse practitioner about any allergies, present and past medical conditions and their treatments, not to mention any familial ailments or conditions for which he has knowledge (Mello & Kelly, 2005). It is worth noting that the failure to disclose such information would potentially lead to serious jeopardizing of the care offered by the nurse practitioner and would essentially amount to patient negligence, which is also referred to as contributory negligence (Mello & Kelly, 2005).

In addition, the nurse practitioner can take defense in the fact that he followed due procedure and took due diligence in administering the therapy (Mello & Kelly, 2005). This is especially considering that heat treatment was the appropriate therapy for the ankle injury, not to mention the fact that it was administered in the right manner and within the appropriate temperature. This means that the damage or harm that the plaintiff underwent was an unavoidable risk pertaining to the procedure, in which case the nurse practitioner should not be liable (Kessler & McClellan, 1996). This defense hearkens to the issue of informed consent, where the nurse practitioner had properly informed the plaintiff as to the procedure that would be undertaken, to which the plaintiff had agreed. On the same note, the defense against the malpractice would revolve around the fact that the condition or prognosis was nor worsened by the medical malpractice that is alleged by the plaintiff (Kessler & McClellan, 1996). It is worth noting, in addition, that the plaintiff had not complained of any discomfort during the process or after the heat treatment was applied, but did it long afterwards.

However, this does not undermine the fact that the nurse entrepreneur is liable to the extent that he did not undertake examination of the skin prior to, in the course of, or even after the application of the heat therapy. In essence, he would be required to compensate the plaintiff. Needless to say, a large number of practitioners and healthcare facilities usually have medical professional liability insurance or medical malpractice insurance, which covers professional liability arising from failure to undertake due care, as well as standards of care that is expected of them (Mello & Kelly, 2005).

The nurse practitioner in this case would be covered against the claims of negligence. This is essentially what medical malpractice insurance cover. This means that any settlement that the nurse practitioner would be required to do as a result of his negligence would be covered by the insurance to the extent of the insured amount (Hellinger & Encinosa, 2006). In addition, the amount that the nurse practitioner would be required to incur as legal expenses would be catered for by the insurance as part of the medical malpractice insurance cover (Budetti, 2005). It is worth noting that there are instances where insurance companies would fail to compensate or cover liability. Typical exclusions would include illegal conduct, misrepresentation of items during application for insurance, sexual improprieties, as well as alteration of hospital or medical records (Hellinger & Encinosa, 2006). None of these issues are present in the case provided, in which case the insurance company would be covering the nurse practitioner.

In conclusion, nurse practitioners are charged with the responsibility of treating both mental and physical ailments via all-inclusive history taking, tests, as well as undertaking physical tests for interpretation. However, even the best practitioner may be charged with negligence or medical malpractice. This is the case for the provided instance. While the application of the heat treatment may have resulted in burns and the palliatives triggered allergic reactions, the plaintiff had not disclosed all medical history. On the same note, the nurse practitioner had carried out the correct procedure in the correct manner and with the appropriate temperature. However, his failure to check the skin prior to, during and after the skin treatment renders him liable in which case his insurance should compensate the plaintiff for the malpractice and the legal expenses.

References

Budetti, P.P (2005). Tort Reform and the Patient Safety Movement. JAMA. Vol. 1: 293(21):2660-2662

Hellinger, FJ & Encinosa, WE (2006). The Impact of State Laws Limiting Malpractice Damage Awards on Health Care Expenditures. Am J Public Health. Vol. 96(8):1375-81

Kessler, D & McClellan, M (1996). Do Doctors Practice Defensive Medicine? Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 111(2): 353-390.

Mello, MM & Kelly, CN (2005). Effects of a Professional Liability Crisis on Residents’ Practice Decisions. Obstet Gynecol. Vol. 105(6):1287-95.

Noland, C & Carl W.J, (2006). “It’s not our ass”: medical resident sense-making regarding lawsuits. Health Commun. Vol. 20:81-89.

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://psnet.ahrq.gov/images/spacer.gif” * MERGEFORMATINET

MIAMI DADE COLLEGE

AMH2020

Professor N. Hernandez

American History Since 1877

Midterm Paper

Instructions:

This document contains instructions, prompts, and a rubric for your Midterm paper. As per the syllabus, the midterm is worth up to 30 points, and is 30% of your grade for the course. Please complete the midterm in a separate document, which you will submit to the Midterm assignment page in Blackboard. Your paper should be 700-1000 words (do not exceed 1000), use Chicago-Style for both citing and double-space formatting. A great citation resource is Citation Machine’s Webpage. You may also want to schedule time to meet with me during Office Hours with regards to your paper. Finally, Miami Dade College also offers tutoring to students to assist with your writing.

You are required to use one secondary source and at least two primary sources related to your topic. For your secondary source, you may use our required textbook The Unfinished Nation by Alan Brinkley. For your primary sources, a great resource is the Library of Congress webpage.

Your paper will be submitted via the Turnitin tool on Blackboard. This tool will check your paper for plagiarism, including improper citations or “over quoting”. You will receive a “similarity percentage” on your essay. If your similarity percentage is over 20%, you will be asked to re-do your paper. This re-write is optional, you can choose to accept your grade as is, or re-write the essay before our next class. For papers with a similarity percentage over 20%, your grade will be deducted 5 points for every additional 5% past the limit. For example, if your similarity percentage is 30%, your paper is 10% past the 20% allowed limitation. Thus the highest grade your paper can earn is a 20 point letter grade of a D.

You may choose any one of the following prompts as your essay question for your midterm. You may want to write about another topic not listed below…one more closely related to your specific interests…this option must be discussed with me during Office Hours prior to the day of the Midterm and must be approved beforehand. Any papers turned in on topics outside of the ones listed below or on any topic not approved by me beforehand will not be graded and will result instead in an automatic 0/30 grade.

Midterm Paper Prompts:

To what extent did technology play a role in the politics of the Great Depression era in the United States?

What were the various effects of the industrial revolution in the United States from the 19th to the early 20th centuries?

Analyze the historical agency and/or participation of Women in American society from the 19th to the early 20th centuries.

Analyze American attitudes of “othering” towards various racial groups from the post-Civil War era to 1918.

Analyze the effects of migration on American society from the 19th to the early 20th centuries.

Pre-approved topic

Rubric:

Criterion 27 – 30 Points (A) 24 – 36 Points (B) 21 – 23 points (C) 20 points or below (D / F) 1. Format The paper meets all formatting requirements. The paper is mostly in Chicago format and is not the correct length The paper follows only some Chicago formatting and is not correct length. The paper follows no specific format (or not in Chicago specifications) and is too short. 2. Topic The paper answers all the parts of the topic questions thoroughly. The paper answers some of the prompt completely but ignores other parts The paper answers only part of some of the questions. The paper fails to answer the question it set out to answer. 3. Organization The writing is clear with effective transitions and the paragraphs flow smoothly. Transitions are present but not at all times. Some of the content is choppy and does not flow smoothly The paper is choppy. The writing jumps around without clear connection. There is no apparent organization and no transitions. 4. Grammar/

Spelling There are little to no grammatical or spelling issues. Grammar and spelling problems are minimal. Most could have been fixed with proofreading There are major grammatical and spelling problems that require far more than proofreading to be fixed. The paper is almost unreadable because of the grammatical and spelling issues. 5. Use of sources and citations The paper carefully and successfully weaves source material into a cohesive whole. Citations are done correctly The use of sources is not always appropriate or correctly done. Citations are not always done correctly. The paper does not use source material in citations or fails to cite all source material. The paper does not have sources. 6. Thesis and topic sentences Thesis & topic sentences are clear and well stated. Thesis is appropriate to the topic and convincing. Thesis & topic sentences are present but are sometimes simplistic, confusing or inappropriate. Thesis & topic sentences are simplistic, confusing or inappropriate Thesis & topic sentences are unidentifiable or missing. 7. Examples and support Numerous examples, illustrations, facts, & comparisons develop & support the thesis. Good number of examples, illustrations, facts and comparisons are present but are lacking in some areas. Examples, illustrations, facts, & comparisons are superficial, Some facts may be inaccurate. No examples, illustrations, facts, & comparisons are used. 8. Timeliness* Paper was turned in on time Automatic letter grade deduction if a day late. Automatic 2 letter grades deduction if two days late Automatic 3 letter grades deduction if three or more days late

Daniel Salhuana445 SW 133rd Court, Miami FL 33184

Cell 786-973-6602

Email: dannysalhuana@gmail.com.

Miami Police Department

Dear Hiring Manager

I am writing to express my interest in advancing my career in the Criminal Justice industry.

After graduating from high school, I joined the Miami Dades College for the associates in arts criminal justice where I completed my training and passed and that gave me the opportunity to become a law enforcement officer. As I held the position I got the chance to serve in the military as I also attend the Florida International University and currently working on a bachelor’s degree in criminal justice.

My experience includes conducting detailed and professional examination of crime scenes, appropriate collection of evidence and firearms. I have experience in arresting perpetrators and presenting the evidence that led to the arrest of the individuals in court.

I have mastered and acquired excellent communication skills which include: Leadership skills, flexibility and adaptability, active listening, public speaking and negotiation skills coupled with the ability to be very persuasive. Other skills paramount to this field that I possess include possessing and demonstrating integrity, the ability to make and use good judgement and sound decisions as well as making sound judgement calls, interrogation techniques and problem solving skills.

I am physically fit and I am able to pursue the career in this demanding field, I am proficient in the use of firearms and how to defend myself and every other person should the need arise. I have established a career out of handling myself professionally especially in the face of difficult situations. The guiding principle in my life is to follow the highest ethical standards possible and to make it a priority to treat others with utmost respect

Surname:

Subject:

Tutor:

Date: 2nd May, 2012

Man’s search for meaning

Dr.Frankl’s approach to meaning differs to Sigmund Freud’s approach. According to Frankl, man is naturally driven by the desire of searching for meaning in life. This contradicts Sigmund Freud who says that man is controlled b the unconscious desires from the unconscious mind To him, Frankl, the meaning of life has more weight as compared to the unconscious desires of man. (Viktor 59)

Dr.Frankl approaches meaning from three different dimensions. He says that meaning can be three in one depending on the approach that a person may decide to take. He says that meaning can be discovered through our actions or deeds in life. The ways we create our works or rather in all that we do we can find meaning. He also says that meaning can be through experience. It is different when one does something and another gets the meaning from encountering someone or experiencing something. Thirdly, he says that meaning can be got through attitude we have especially in cases that will cause suffering and we can not avoid them. He says that this meaning can be gotten when one is denied the will to choose, is denied freedom. From these descriptions, three situations that define meaning come forth. First, the meaning due to the nature of human beings of not subjects to specific conditions but are free; they can choose and take stance on psychological, social and biological conditions that they may encounter. Freedom therefore refers to the spacethat is necessary for one to evaluate himself or herself and see the possibilities or the limitations involved in taking some actions. This is the space that plays the role of giving people the authenticity to actions in psychotherapy. Secondly, meaning also comes from the natural desire of human beings to achieve their goals and aspirations. It is true that people are free but their goals and purposes in life also matter. So, Dr.Frankl argues that the driving force of human beings into choice is primarily their goals. These act as primary motivation to people I their wills to choose. This is why when people fail to meet these objectives in their choices, they become embarrased. Lastly, Dr.Frankl says that people find meaning from the nature of the meaning. Meaning is not an illusion but a realistic objective that must be achieved. This means that a person can not just imagine or convince himself or herself that meaning is achieved when it is realistically absent.

In finding these meanings, logotherapy is very useful. Dr.Frankl says that logotherapy helps people to manage an incredible balance. He says that logotherapy is an incredible power that helps people shapes their attitudes as well as their responses in times of challenges in their present lives. He also says the logotherapy helps people to do away with the obstacles that could make them not to realise goals that are meaningful.in this importance, people are simply given guidance but not directed to specific meanings. This gives them the freedom to choose and do what will have meaning to them. In addition to these, logotherapy also enables people to realise that their actions are very important. This is to mean that after people have made choices and acted; their actions become the proof of whether they made the right choices or the wrong ones. This is why logotherapy is very important.(Viktor, 64)

Despite the fact that Dr. Frankl’s logotherapy is very straight and probably easy to understand, there are criticisms concerning it. Some people have come forth to say thatlogotherapy is authoritarian in nature. For instance, people like May Rollo says that he can not get it how Frankl’slogotherapy can give solutions to all human problems. Some critics have also claimed thatlogotherapy has elements of religiousness that could be from the influence that Frankl might have when he was young. This criticism is for the idea that Frankl is searching for meaning through faith.

Works cited

Viktor F.Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl. Beacon Press, 2006: 59

Viktor F. A Life Worth Living, Anna Redsand .2006: 109

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Breast cancer

Breast cancer is highly prevalent in women. Globally, it is the prominent cause of cancer deaths in women. Clinicians and scientists are persistently seeking better ways to improve prognosis of the patients. The term breast cancer coalesces a group of mammalian tumor subtypes, each with a unique molecular and cellular source as well as clinical traits. The prognosis of the disease is worse for particular subtypes and in poorly developed countries where the diagnosis is done late. This paper will focus on the epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognosis of breast cancer. The paper will give new insight into the management of the condition.

For a long time, breast cancer used to have a high mortality rate in cancer patients, but now it has been surpassed by lung cancer. In the US, it accounts for approximately 30% of all cancers among women. Most of the early cases are often asymptomatic. The US predicts that there will about 276,480 cases diagnosed in women in 2020 and 2620 cases in men. The number of cases in the US soared in the 1980s because of a widespread increase in screening (Siegel, Kimberly & Ahmed). Breast cancer cases surged outside the US, with the highest incidence reported in Westernized countries due to the increased awareness and screening. Women in these countries have altered reproductive patterns, which may explain the reason for the increased cases. A mammogram diagnosis is a confirmatory diagnosis for breast cancer. Guidelines recommend the use of a triple approach to diagnose the condition. It consists of clinical examination, needle biopsy, and breast imaging. Due to constant public awareness, more screening and early diagnosis are made in developed countries worldwide.

Breast cancer presents with the following signs and symptoms: axillary lump, skin changes, nipple abnormalities, increase or decrease in breast size, or a change in its shape. Cancer develops when there is a change in molecular and cellular structures of the mammalian epithelial cells that causes uncontrolled cell growth and dysfunctional apoptosis. Research into the genetic profiles of the cancers has shown there are several discrete subtypes of this cancer. The subtypes are grouped based on the presence or absence of ER, PR, and HER2. The intrinsic subtypes of breast cancer are luminal A, basal-like, HER2-positive, and luminal B. Each of these subtypes has its distinct features that guide its clinical management. The basal-like subtype shares many features with ovarian cancers (Tomczak et al.).

The etiology of breast cancer is founded on epidemiological studies. There are several risk factors for the disease. Firstly, age and gender. Sporadic cases are few in women aged below 40 years. However, the number increases immensely above that age. Breast cancer occurs at conspicuously greater numbers in women than men. One could easily say that it is a condition for women, just like the way prostate cancer is for men. Secondly, a positive family history exacerbates the risk of getting breast cancer. Family is one of the most intensely researched factors. A person has a 4-time lifetime risk if a mother and sister get the condition. The risk increases to 5 times when there are two or more first-degree relatives diagnosed with breast cancer (DeSantis). Thirdly, reproductive, and steroid hormone factors. For example, a late age to first pregnancy, nulliparity, late onset of menopause increases the person’s susceptibility to the condition. Clinical trial data have demonstrated the benefits of the use of SERMs agents such as tamoxifen and raloxifene. Oral contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy are common in women of childbearing age, which significantly predisposes them to breast cancer. Fourth, lifestyle risk factors. Diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and grains, monounsaturated fatty acids, low alcohol intake provides a protective effect on women. Other factors include obesity and environmental factors such as smoking, alcohol use, and carcinogens (Tao).

In the clinical setting, management of breast cancer is done through surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy. The three approaches are frequently combined to achieve better results. There are two types of surgery mainly done namely, lumpectomy and total mastectomy. To reduce residue disease, radiation therapy is done after surgery. Pharmacotherapy is utilized regularly and can be either hormonal or chemotherapeutic. Some of these include methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, carboplatin, docetaxel, and trastuzumab. HER2 positive cancers may be treated with HER2-targeted therapy in combination with angiogenesis inhibitors. The SERM agents are used in the prophylaxis of breast cancer. Some women with a high risk of getting breast cancer opt for prophylactic mastectomy (Waks & Eric).

HER2 subtype is accompanied by a poorer prognosis. As a result, adjuvant therapy with trastuzumab, pertuzumab, and lapatinib is recommended to avoid worse outcomes. Anthracycline-based agents like doxorubicin also improve prognosis in this group of patients. There are two types of DCIS cancers: comedo and non-comedo. The worst prognosis occurs with comedo DCIS. 10-20% of LCIS women develop invasive metastatic breast cancer in about 15 years. Metastatic breast cancer leads to death within 3-5 years (DeSantis).

One of the goals of therapy is to avoid metastasis since it has a poor outcome. Early breast examination and imaging can help to ensure early diagnosis as it has been shown to have the best outcomes. Consequently, each country should put in measures to sensitize the public on the necessity of regular screening. Going forward, there is a need to encourage the world population to adopt a healthy lifestyle. In addition, to mitigating cancers, an appropriate lifestyle prevents a myriad of diseases.

Works cited

DeSantis, Carol E., et al. “Breast cancer statistics, 2019.” CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 69.6 (2019): 438-451.

Siegel, Rebecca L., Kimberly D. Miller, and Ahmedin Jemal. “Cancer statistics, 2019.” CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 69.1 (2019): 7-34.

Tao, ZiQi, et al. “Breast cancer: epidemiology and etiology.” Cell biochemistry and biophysics 72.2 (2015): 333-338.

Tomczak, Katarzyna, Patrycja Czerwińska, and Maciej Wiznerowicz. “The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA): an immeasurable source of knowledge.” Contemporary oncology 19.1A (2015): A68.

Waks, Adrienne G., and Eric P. Winer. “Breast cancer treatment: a review.” Jama 321.3 (2019): 288-300.

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A walk of nature experience

Taking walks gives us a whole lot of experiences! It is interesting to take walks, taking pictures of interesting and beautiful sceneries. Nature is worth exploring after a long day at work as one gets to take a break from the noisy and congested part of town, and for a moment forgetting everything else and focusing on the what nature has to offer. Typically, most people fail to understand the beauty that nature holds, as they do not take time for exploration but rather spend long days at work only to get home in the evening. My experiences after taking a walk were exciting, and my interest in taking walks for often heightened. This paper focuses on the walk I made, and my experiences, spelling out my attitude before, during and after the walk. Also, the paper presents a comparison between my walk and the walks of Thoreau.

I take my walk in a park around San Antonio. The walk was in Government Canyon Natural Area whose address is 12861 Galm Rd. The walk gave me a fascinating experience. The park is open from Friday to Monday and is closed from Tuesday to Thursday. The Government Canyon Natural Area is the best park to go for hikes in San Antonio. I took a walk after dusk, and the view was worth watching. The paths were narrow, and one could barely see a long distance, but it was possible to see a considerable distance. There were a number of bushes which covered a more substantial part of the park giving it beautiful scenery which was attractive to be in and take pictures. The bushes also covered the paths reducing the effect of the sun on the explorers which can help attract more individuals to walk during the day. From this point, I could see the magical view of San Antonio, presented by the lights. It was beautiful to be in the place at this time when darkness was lurking.

The rocks also completed the beauty of the park as it gave the bushes a breaking atmosphere. The rocks were also an excellent place to rest on after waking for a long time. Grass also added to the beauty of nature at the park, and also presented an excellent place to sit and rest after taking long walks. Additionally, there was a cool breeze and fresh air which I believe is brought about by the trees. Unlike in San Antonio, the place was not congested and was therefore quiet too, presenting an adequate place to relax after work.

My attitude changed significantly from the moment I began the walk, the period of the walk and after taking a walk. Before I started taking the walk, I had a negative attitude towards the walk, as I figured it would take much time, yet I had no interest in taking walks in parks. I had plans to take a maximum of one hour in the park. Walking to me did not have much to present but bushes and darkness now that the walk was to take place at dusk. During the walk, I began to realize that it is more entertaining than I expected.

My attitude had begun to change towards taking walks since I could now see what other people like myself miss out. The park, especially at this time is more than a bushy area with rocks and trees. It now appeared to be more of beautiful scenery, with a cool breeze, quiet and an excellent place to come to when one wants to take a break from the San Antonio noisy streets. After the walk, I knew that this would not be the last time I come here for a walk, and I knew that I would explore more parks and experience the beauty of nature. Walking through the park was worth the time and spending more time on parks would still be worth it. My attitude towards nature had taken a complete turn, and I now understood why Thoreau felt that taking walks was essential. People cannot discover the beauty of nature unless they take their time and walk to places, spotting what interests them.

My walk and the walk taken by Thoreau have notable similarities and differences. In both cases, the walks are taken outside the home environment and in the outcasts where there are trees and bushes. My walk took place in a park with bushes, trees and rocks where there were a few people and the atmosphere was just overwhelming. Thoreau is much attracted to nature as he states, ‘While a majority of men feel attracted to society, a few are attracted to nature.” (Thoreau 11). His experiences in the forest are evident in his statement, ‘..reminds me of the cries emitted by world beasts in their native forests.’ (Thoreau 9).

Additionally, there are instances of darkness in both walks. My walk is in the evening, when the sun is no longer visible, which helps me to have a clear view of San Antonio which is enabled by electric light. Similarly, it is evident that Thoreau also tool walks at night. He states that ‘Genius is the light which makes the darkness visible, like the lightning flash…’ (Thoreau 15)His statement is an experience that he has had in the darkness during one of his walks. There are also differences between my walk and the walks taken by Thoreau. For instance, he takes his walks, not only in the wild but also in places such as homesteads with domestic animals. This is evident when he makes a comparison between the wild and domesticated animals, ‘I assert even domestic animals when they reassert their native rights.’ He also talks about his neighbour’s cow that breaks out of her pasture trying to bring out a similarity in all animals. On the contrary, my walk is precisely in a park, and there are no animals visible, except for the hummingbirds in their nests.

In selecting the photographs, I choose the pictures which had much to view and had a clear view of the scenery. Walking helps us to explore and understand how beautiful nature around us is. It is on a few occasions that people understand the environment surrounding them as they do not take time to explore and learn. Nonetheless, the few people who make the decision to take walks to understand the true meaning of nature, like Thoreau states. A majority of people are pre-occupied in their day-to-day activities and chores, preventing them from creating time for nature. People, however, should learn the importance of understanding the natural environment surrounding them. Nature is beauty!

Work Cited

Thoreau, Henry David. Walking. Lulu. com, 1862. Pg. 3-24

Breaching of Privacy on Social Media

Name:

Institution:

Introduction

Social media platforms have become an integral part of human existence. From sharing texts, photos, the latest news, assignments, to online surveys, marketing, and customer targeting, social media platforms have a wide array of digital uses. Despite these platforms providing daily interactions for more than two billion users globally, they have received much critique regarding privacy and security. In the recent past, there have been reports of privacy and security breaches by online social media and social networking service companies and governmental agencies CITATION Lad15 l 1033 (Ladan, 2015). This work aims to emphasize the need for every user to be cautious about the security and privacy of information they share online and to advocate for all Social networking sites to be limited in what they can do with the information that users post on these networks.

Privacy and Concerns on Social Media

Privacy is viewed from the perspective of control. This includes control over personal data and information, an individual’s choice to disclose their information, the number of entities or persons present in disclosure, the physical presence of other bodies, or the choice of which persons to discuss or share these issues with. Control is, therefore, a key concept in maintaining one’s privacy. The main problem concerning privacy in social networking sites is the misuse of user data and the leakages of user information and profiles. Lately, several cases regarding breaching of privacy have surfaced. Reports have proven that Facebook and other social media platforms have been sharing their users’ personal information with advertising companies without the users’ consent or even knowledge. The data shared by these sites comprises of usernames, their IDs, and other sorts of information that enables the advertising companies to single out distinct user profiles CITATION Stu16 l 1033 (Stutzman, 2016). Advertising companies such as the Double Click Company owned by Google have been getting these data to facilitate advertisements and marketing. Facebook has been identified to go much further in the sharing of user information than other social networking sites.

Due to Facebook’s extensive breaching of privacy, its CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, was summoned to Congress to elaborate and testify of these misdeeds. It has been reported that whenever a Facebook user clicks on advertisements that appear on a profile page, Facebook provides data such as the username behind the clicking and the use whose profile page clicked on the page CITATION Fuc14 l 1033 (Fuchs, 2014). Moreover, Twitter admitted to having scanned and imported their user’s phone contacts onto their website’s database to know more about their users and their relations. With this information, Twitter aimed to aid their users to find their friends. It is also reported that thousands of companies were waiting for Twitter to give them access to millions of tweets regarding their different products, services, or simply the organizations themselves. Data mining techniques have been used to fish valuable information on advertising and marketing CITATION Pre17 l 1033 (Preibusch, Soren, Hoser, Bettina, & Gürses, 2017). With this information, organizations can advertise their products to individuals who search for their products more. Despite some users not having a problem with the exposure of their private information, many care about the revelation of their private information to many people and worry about privacy guidelines, policies, and settings of a networking site. The latter group tries to use any available security policies or features to ensure that they have protected themselves. Many social networking sites have been seen to restore security settings to default after a user updates their security features. Facebook has especially been criticized on its carelessness when it comes to privacy and resetting privacy settings to default.

Other issues connected to privacy is the fact that numerous Social Networking Sites provide Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) to third party developers for the creation of applications for the website’s platform CITATION Adr14 l 1033 (Felt & David, 2014). These third-party applications are pretty common with the users, and after installation, they can access the user’s information immediately. These third-party applications are also able to post on user’s profiles or a friend’s profile. They may also have access to other users’ information without these users’ knowledge. Moreover, third-party applications are capable of tracking the user’s activities and allow other advertisement partners to access and retrieve the user’s data for advertising and other commercial uses.

Posting and sharing pictures and videos, directly or indirectly, may lead to a user’s breach of privacy or a firm’s breach of confidentiality. Another violation of privacy is that potential employers can sometimes use social networks to look up information on their prospective employees. The employers use this information to screen applicants, and these may support or hurt their chances at employment, Employers seek to find if the applicants have made political statements that conflict with their organization’s culture and ideologies. Twitter and Facebook have been identified as the primary networking sites that are used to screen potential employees and job applicants. Twitter and Facebook are preferred by employers to get a personal understanding of the job applicants rather than relying on information from sites like LinkedIn that tend to offer resume-like opinions. Therefore, social media networks should know that many employers use their websites to get information on some of their users as a form of pre-screening.

Today, many social networking sites have responded to these concerns over the breach of privacy. They have claimed that they have dealt with changes in default security changes, data storage, and the sharing of user data to third-party applications and updated or corrected these issues. However, other issues remain unsatisfied such as the critical changes that need to be done on privacy settings to allow the user to determine whether or not their information can be shared.

Organizations Lobbying Against Privacy Infringement on Social Media

Lobbyists groups against the breach of privacy on social media and technology include The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), and the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC). These groups state that technological innovation has outstripped the need for privacy protection. Due to this, the government agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and corporations are tracking users’ digital footprints in methods that most Americans would term as improbable CITATION ATh13 l 1033 (Thierer, 2013). As more and more people use social media, then more data is becoming available for these entities to use. The digital footprint comprises of communication, our locations, purchases, what we browse online, and even our physical bodies. When these entities access the users’ information, then the users lose their right to privacy and control of their information. Ultimately, the rights to free speech, privacy, and security are lost in one way or another.

These lobby groups and nongovernmental organizations fight the infringement of privacy by using litigation and advocacy in courts and lobbies on Capitol Hill. They also work with technology organizations to ensure that civil rights and liberties are protected even with technological advancements CITATION Pri18 l 1033 (Privacy and Tecghnology: What is at Stake?, 2018). The lobby groups are particular in their goals on privacy. These organizations aims include securing warrant requirements for the NSA to access people’s electronic information and to ensure that these surveillance practices are more transparent to the public. The lobby groups also aim to encourage the development of technologies that that ensure that users’ electronic data is protected. These groups argue that Americans should not be made to choose between enjoying the benefits of new technology and protecting their freedoms. They work to ensure that the Fourth Amendment Act that bans unnecessary searches to extend to digital data and property.

The Government on Privacy Infringement

The government does not condone the misuse and breaches of privacy for American social media users. As evidenced by Mark Zuckerberg’s summon to Capitol Hill to testify on Facebook’s alleged misuse of American data, the lawmakers are serious in the protection of the privacy of Americans. During Zuckerberg’s drilling, he acknowledged that Facebook had allowed the political data mining company, Cambridge Analytica, access to millions of American personal data. This proves that Social media sites do not have their users’ needs in mind. Despite the Congress advocating for their rights to user privacy, they have allowed the government access to Americans’ communications.

The National Security Agency (NSA) has the power to conduct a warrantless internet surveillance program that has been supported time and again the U.S. House of Representatives. Despite opposition from lobby groups and advocates of privacy, the promoters of this spying tool state that it is useful as the tool protects the nation from any terror attacks. The NSA classified domestic spying program was launched after the September 11 attacks and is used to mainly track calls and messages domestically. The NSA maintains that these monitoring communications is one example of collecting intelligence. The New York Times exposed this program in 2005 and was said to detect any American associations with terrorists.

The NSA program was first passed by Congress, who passed the FISA Amendments Acts and Patriotic Act to support surveillance activities outside the nation. Since these Acts have already been passed, NSA, therefore, has the right to record phone conversations, especially international texts, emails, and telephone calls. This program enables them in the detection of any foreign threat that may attempt to infiltrate the country. The ACLU and other lobby groups are trying to ensure that the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) can assess the government’s surveillance programs and decide on whether all these programs are constitutional or not. The ACLU also asks for more transparency in the program’s activities for the citizenry. The government argues that the UAS.S. Constitution’s Fourth Amendment protects the information that the citizenry keeps on their desk but not online information such as emails, photos, or videos.

My Take on Data Surveillance and Privacy Breaches by Social Networking Sites and Governmental Agencies

The pervasive use of information technology has changed our lives in terms of working, forming, and maintaining social connections. The main concern of these social networks is the privacy of our data. More stringent laws should be put in place to avoid social media networks from making user information available for advertising and marketing. However, if this information is to be used in the security of our nation, then the government agencies can use it. However, there should be an oversight body that regulates whether or not the government is using this information for the said purposes. Information is among the most important elements in the twenty-first century. The availability of information to the government is giving the government too much power, and this needs regulation and overseeing. Therefore, I agree with the ACLU and other lobbyists, that privacy is information, and so is the security of the nation. However, the government cannot have control over everyone’s data without the common public having a say in it.

Avoiding Data Surveillance by Social Media Networks and Third Party Applications

Security and privacy attacks can be classified into four groupings- breaches of privacy, viral advertising, malware attacks, and structural network attacks. Users should, therefore, be careful to avoid these breaches. Before signing up for any social media network, then one should review the website’s privacy policies. If the policies are unclear on how the site protects the users’ data, then one should not sign up or should limit using this platform. When signing up, one should also use a robust password that cannot be guessed easily and should be different from passwords used in other social media networks. After signing up, one should ensure that they configure their privacy settings from default since for some sites, default settings allow other parties to access your information. Users should also remember that once information is posted online, then it cannot be completely withdrawn. Despite deleting this information, some caches may still exist on other computers. Therefore, confidential data should never be posted online. Information like phone numbers, addresses, and other information that is mostly used for security should not be posted. This information includes; Mother’s maiden name, one’s town of birth, or the name of a favorite car. Identity thieves can configure a lot from this information on the user’s profile. Users should avoid installing applications that are not from trusted sources and that have been verified.

Conclusion

Since it has been difficult to stop government surveillance and access to our data, unless the issue is discussed by Congress or the matter is taken up during a referendum, we should, therefore, be more concerned on data security and privacy infringement by social networking sites and making this information accessible to corporations for marketing. Congress and lobbyists should ensure that all these privacy infringements are dealt with to protect the freedoms explicitly provided the Fourth Amendment.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Felt, A., & David, E. (2014). Privacy Protection for Social Networking APIs. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 179-186.

Fuchs, C. (2014). An alternative view of privacy on Facebook: Trust and privacy in our networked world. Informations Journal, 2-14.

Ladan, M. (2015). Social Networks: Privacy Issues and Precautions. The Ninth International Conference on Digital Society, Beirut.

Preibusch, A., Soren, G., Hoser, G., Bettina, M., & Gürses, S. (2017). Ubiquitous social networks? Opportunities and challenges for privacy-aware user modeling. Workshop on Data Mining for User Modelling .

Privacy and Tecghnology: What is at Stake? (2018, September 28). Retrieved from ACLU Web Site: https://www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology

Stutzman, F. (2016). An evaluation of identity-sharing behavior in social network communities. Journal of the International Digital Media and Arts Association, 3(1), 11-19.

Thierer, A. (2013). To Track Or Not To Track: Recent Legislative Proposals to Portect Consumer Privacy. Harvard Journal of Legislation, 111-134. Retrieved from Harvard Journal on Legislation.