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Mass Incarceration on Joe Martinez Parable

While people from the generation today are brought up to grow morally and avoid being jailed either for violent crimes, drug crimes or any other crimes, the United States of America seem to benefit more from the few who find it hard to abandon the wrongful ways. According to statistics conducted some years back while 5% of the people in the world are in prison, America constitutes 25% of them, this number has increased from 300,000 to 2 million in the last 30 years and only seems as rising (Wagner, and Rabuy). Various projections have tried to be used to explain this rise with more focus being on the new policies that are instituted by the government and the relies on punishment to deter crimes. The incarceration of these many prisoners in the federal, state and local jails is what scholars claim as mass incarceration and is dependent on the racial biases in the society today. The discussion below will focus on the goals of this influx of people in the jails while relating it to the Parable of Joe Martinez.

Firstly, this parable was published in 1970 and had been written by a black prisoner according to the Black Voices in prison, the author in his work seem to explain the role of the prison system and its effects on the victims. In the beginning, we see the convict having to choose among 7 doors including therapist, doctor, chaplain, correction, parole, counselor and teacher, he chooses correction. Evidently from his choice the convict depicts his willingness to reform his ways and undergo punishment to have a clean slate, this is the goal of mass incarceration to punish people for the crimes by sending them to jail and correctional centers. After the convict finds two doors, custody and treatment and he picks treatment this also tries to explain the convict might have been sent to prison after being convicted of drug-related charges or the fact that he as an individual had always struggled with a drug problem hence he was seeking rehabilitation. Additionally, about mass incarceration, most people who are in the state and local jails have been convicted of drug-related charges and their stay in prison is usually to rehabilitate them while keeping them from using drugs.

After picking the treatment door, the convict then has to choose between the juvenile and adult door where we are told he picked the proper one, the lack of specification show the fault in the prison system wherein some circumstances one is convicted as a juvenile but tried as an adult. The distinction arises across people of different racial origins where a juvenile from the minority will be convicted as a juvenile but tried as an adult yet it rarely happens with the majority. The objective while shedding on the mass interstation originates from the fact that most people in the system are the blacks and they are usually considered more dangerous than the whites and also because for adults it is considered as a punishment which is their goal and rehabilitation for the juveniles. Moreover, the convict then chooses between the previous offender and first offender, there is no definite pick and it is because the situations are treated differently across people and circumstances. In any case, one’s priors matters and one is bound to receive more punishment when he is found to be a convicted felon than one who has no prior and in some situation, one with prior can be punished more than one with priors (Schoenfeld).

Additionally, the convict goes ahead and picks between a democratic and republican door, he picks a democrat which is often associated with the black. Unfortunately, most blacks affiliate themselves with Democratic since they endured slavery during the republican reign and only received some relief only during the New deal. Shedding light on the goal of mass incarceration most policies that have been formed that have led to this issue have been constituted while the people holding the positions are affiliated with being republican. Finally, the last door the convict had to choose from was either black or white and since we have been told by the author that he was black he picked it, unfortunately, he fell nine stories to the street. The scenario is symbolic since he was black and at the end of making so many decisions, he falls which means he just went back to the same trend. While reflecting this with the objective of mass incarceration, its main objective is usually punishment and not rehabilitation hence the same people in the system at the end of the day nothing changes in their life but they go back to the same ways (Schoenfeld).

Overall, while reflecting on the goal of mass incarceration while basing it on the Martinez parable, these prisoners once they are convicted they are usually ready to reform their ways but the decision they have to make, the discrimination and the inadequacies of the prison life at the end of the day fails to achieve its purpose. These inadequacies of the system, in turn, lead to the same prisoners being convicted again making the system a cycle instead of a turning point for them. Unfortunately, they are little to be done until the system itself is fixed to ensure that prisoners in jail not only are punished but at the end of the day, they are rehabilitated emerging better.

Works Sited

Schoenfeld, Heather. Mass Incarceration And The Paradox Of Prison Conditions Litigation. Law And Society Association, 2010, pp. 1-38, https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents. Accessed 19 Feb 2020.

Wagner, Peter, and Bernadette Rabuy. Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2017. 2017, pp. 1-23, http://www.antoniocasella.eu/nume/Wagner_Rabuy_14mar17.pdf. Accessed 19 Feb 2020.

Mass Incarceration

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Mass incarceration is also known as mass imprisonment. It is a term that refers to the unique way that the United States has locked up vast populations in federal and state prisons as well as local prisons. The main reason for mass incarceration as a mode of punishment is the philosophical goal of deterrence since many people believe that imprisonment discourages offenders from committing future crimes.  The prison population began to grow in the 1970s, when politicians used fear and thinly veiled racial rhetoric to push increasingly punitive policies.  Nixon started this trend, declaring a “war on drugs” and justifying it with speeches about being “tough on crime.” But the prison population truly exploded during President Ronald Reagan’s administration. When Reagan took office in 1980, the total prison population was 329,000, and when he left office eight years later, the prison population had essentially doubled, to 627,000. This staggering rise in incarceration hit communities of color hardest: They were disproportionately incarcerated then and remain so today. (James Cullen july2018)

Mass incarceration is a social problem since the inequality it brings is sizeable and enduring for three main reasons; it’s invisible, cumulative and intergenerational. The inequality is invisible in the sense that institutionalized populations commonly lie outside our official accounts of economic well-being. Prisoners, though drawn from the lowest ranks in society, appear in no measures of poverty or unemployment. As a result, the full extent of the disadvantage of groups with high incarceration rates is underestimated. The inequality is cumulative because the social and economic penalties that flow from incarceration are accrued by those who already have the weakest economic opportunities. Mass incarceration thus deepens disadvantage and forecloses mobility for the most marginal in society.(James Cullen July2018) Finally, carceral inequalities are intergenerational, affecting not just those who go to prison and jail but their families and children, too.

The scale of incarceration is measured by a rate that records the fraction of the population in prison or jail in an average day. From 1980-2008, the United State incarceration rate climbed from 221 to 761 per 100,000. In the previous five decades from 1920s through to 1970s, the scale of punishment in America had been stable at around a 100 per 100,000. Though the rate of incarceration is nearly eight times its historic average, the scale of punishment today gains its social force from its unequal distribution. (Bruce Western, Becky Pettit, 2015).  The massive increases in imprisonment might be justifiable if public safety were dramatically improved. Yet despite some accounts suggesting quite beneficial effects of incarceration on crime rates, the majority of the evidence now suggests either that incarceration’s effects on crime are not nearly as large as once suspected or that the crime-fighting benefits of imprisonment have so diminished over the last few years of the 20th century and the early 21st century that incarceration is now a much less effective method for crime control than it was before the 1990s. Given the high rates of imprisonment and racial disparity in imprisonment, incarceration may be significant as a generator of social inequality. (Christopher Wideman 2014)

Most of the growth in incarceration rates is concentrated at the very bottom, among young men with very low levels of education. In 1980, around 10 percent of young African American men who dropped out of high school were in prison or jail. By 2008, this incarceration rate had climbed to 37 percent, an astonishing level of institutionalization given that the average incarceration rate in the general population was 0.76 of 1 percent. Even among young white dropouts, the incarceration rate had grown remarkably, with around one in eight behind bars by 2008. The significant growth of incarceration rates among the least educated reflects increasing class inequality in incarceration through the period of the prison boom. (Western, & Pettit, 2018)

In the last few decades, the institutional contours of American social inequality have been transformed by the rapid growth in the prison and jail population. America’s prisons and jails have produced a new social group, a group of social outcasts who are joined by the shared experience of incarceration, crime, poverty, racial minority, and low education. As an outcast group, the men and women in our penal institutions have little access to the social mobility available to the mainstream. Social and economic disadvantage, crystallizing in penal confinement, is sustained over the life course and transmitted from one generation to the next. This is a profound institutionalized inequality that has renewed race and class disadvantage. Yet the scale and empirical details tell a story that is largely unknown.

  Although there is scholarly consensus about how to define mass incarceration, there is some level of disagreement over its causes and consequences. Some say it deters and incapacitates; others say that it weakens poor families, keeping them socially marginalized. While some have advanced a functionalist argument as to the causes of mass imprisonment, suggesting that it is the fourth “peculiar institution” for the control of African Americans—following slavery. Others have argued that a combination of cultural shifts, political realignments, changes in job prospects for low-skilled men, and perhaps most importantly, legal changes have driven the dramatic increase and absolute disparity in rates of imprisonment over the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Yet despite some accounts suggesting quite beneficial effects of incarceration on crime rates, the majority of the evidence now suggests either that incarceration’s effects on crime are not nearly as large as once suspected or that the crime-fighting benefits of imprisonment have so diminished over the last few years of the 20th century and the early 21st century that incarceration is now a much less effective method for crime control than it was before the 1990s.

The shift in criminalizing Blacks is seen by Tuch and Martin (1997) as a shift from Jim Crow racism to Laissez Faire racism. This racism involves negatively stereotyping Blacks and blaming them for their own economic and social disparities. It also includes not making favorable policy in social conditions and institutions. In other words, society allowed Blacks to try to reach for opportunities, but the system is designed to make it extremely difficult for them to do so. One way in which society makes it more difficult is by developing policies and laws like “tough on crime” tactics aimed to reduce crime. Furthermore, this racism has caused the development of several “colorblind” laws that target minority populations indirectly. An example of this can be seen in Schlesinger’s (2008) study in which he argues that mandatory terms and sentencing enhancements has led to mass racialized incarceration. A significant portion of the studies focused on sentencing and downwards departure. Downward departure is when the sentencing judge can impose a lower sentence than the statutory minimum based on factors such as mental capacity, immaturity, or criminal role. This makes the crime less serious than the general crime listed in the original sentencing guidelines.

According to Kubrin and Stewart’s (2006) study, when offenders are released back into their neighborhoods, they seek resources in their neighborhood to successfully integrate back into society; however, when that is not present the probability of them returning to the criminal justice system is significantly higher. Moreover, when individuals in neighborhoods have high rates of crime, poverty, and high social disorganization, the risk of youth falling into the criminal justice system also increases. Harris’s (2010) study finds that Blacks who find themselves in these neighborhoods are at a higher risk to become incarcerated than whites.

Conclusion

Conclusively, the incarceration system has significantly affected and disadvantaged several people. Throughout history, it is evident that the criminal justice system has been specifically punitive against poor uneducated minorities. Although the incarceration rate has lowered in some states, many other states still have severe rates of incarceration rates and even higher rates of recidivism. Racial and economic disparities have played a significant role in the makeup of the prison population and the rate of recidivism.

A significant factor that needs to be addressed is the socioeconomic disparities that are present in the incarceration system and its effects on first offenders and recidivism. Several studies have shown that race also plays a factor when it comes to socioeconomic status and the likelihood of incarceration and the recidivism rate. For example, Black men throughout history have notably been measured to have a significant wage differences in the labor force to white men since the 1950s (Western & Pettit, 2005). Factors like labor and wage, neighborhood, and education differences have a significant impact on predicting incarceration and recidivism. Mass incarceration has significantly affected the opportunity for employment for several first time and repeat offenders, specifically Blacks. As the incarceration rate continued to rise, so did the unemployment rate in the United States. .

Additionally, Western’s study finds that poor Black men who enter the criminal justice system have a significantly higher chance of earning lower wages in the labor system (Western, 2002). This is most likely explained as a result of the stigma that attaches to those who are imprisoned for crimes. Employers are extremely hesitant in employing people with criminal records. Consequently, someone with a criminal record is less likely to be hired than someone without a criminal record. The social organization of neighborhoods, specifically poor ones, have a significant impact on the level of crime and recidivism rate in that particular neighborhood. Many prisoners and ex-offenders are being shunned away from society, which only leads them to continue on their path for criminal behavior. Programs that aim to eliminate stigma on race, gender, and status should become a vital issue when dealing with reintegration. Mentorship and guidance by trained individuals can help many displaced ex-offenders find their path in life. Not only that, but law enforcement tactics and policies need to be revised in order to better aid these programs and make them more successful. By addressing these issues, society can finally begin to bring change to our criminal justice system.

References

https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0033.xml#obo-9780195396607-0033-bibItem-0008Kubrin, C. E., & Stewart, E. A. (2006). Predicting who reoffends: The neglected role of neighborhood context in recidivism studies. Criminology, 44(1), 165-197.

Pattillo, Mary, David Weiman, and Bruce Western, eds. 2004. Imprisoning America: The social effects of mass incarceration. New York: Russell Sage.

The Atlantic Journal 2015

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Last Night I Dreamed Of Peace

This paper presents an analysis of Dang Thuy Tram’s Novel, Last Night I Dreamt of Peace. Specifically, the paper explains some of the lessons learnt after reading the novel.

As illustrated in the novel, Last Night I Dreamed of Peace, tells the story of the well-famed Vietnam war from the perspective of the enemy, as opposed to the victims. The author of the novel is the main protagonist in the novel, as the book presents a diary of the events that she experienced during the Vietnam War. Arguably, her character in the book is presented as a passionate patriot to her country and one who is devoted to the revolutionary resistance of her country (Guthrie 1). For that reason, her novel is characterized by a hatred of the American troops who she considers responsible for the death and suffering of her community. In her own words, Thuy considers the American troops as imperialist killers and bloodthirsty devils, thus illustrating her feelings and attitudes regarding the Vietnam War.

In essence, the novel tells the story tells the story of Thuy’s dream of peace, as well as, her longing for a better future. A close examination of the novel reveals that the most valuable lesson to be learnt from the book is centered on self-sacrifice. Through her own character in the book, Thuy illustrates the importance of self-sacrifice for the achievement of the things that are important to an individual’s life. Her first entry in the diary states, “Operated on one case of appendicitis without adequate anesthesia. I had only a few meager vials of Novocain to give the soldier, but he never groaned once during the entire procedure. He just kept smiling, to encourage me.” (Thuy 1-225). This entry is the first illustration of her self-sacrifice as she uses her profession to save her own people. She is s doctor by profession, and she gave up her personal life and committed to herself to taking care of the sick during the Vietnam war. She continues to take care of her patients even though she longs for companionship with her childhood sweetheart, as well as, her family back home. The importance of self-sacrifice is illustrated in the way she strives to take care of her people at her own expense. Her place of work is not the most favorable place of work as it is under constant bombing and attacks from the US invaders (Guthrie 1). However, instead of giving up on her people and protecting her life through going into hiding, Thuy continues to work as a doctor, thus illustrating her level of self-sacrifice. This is illustrated in her statement, “Somehow at this moment, I yearn deeply for Mom’s caring hand. Even the hand of a dear one or that of an acquaintance would be enough. Come to me, squeeze my hand, know my loneliness, and give me the love, the strength to prevail on the perilous road before me.” (Thuy 1-225).

Readers of the novel are encouraged to practice self-sacrifice, as it is illustrated o be beneficial in the long run. Not only does she save many lives through her self-sacrifice, Thuy also gives her people the hope that everything will be okay. She shares her dream of peace with others, and encourages them that there will be a better tomorrow if they stay loyal and devoted to their course. This book also encourages readers never to give up even in the face of suffering and destitution and instead sacrifice themselves for the achievement of good during this time. Conclusively, the lesson learnt from reading this book is the importance of self-sacrifice for the achievement of a common good.

Work Cited

Guthrie, John R. Last Night I Dreamed of Peace by Dang Thuy Tram. 13 August 2007. Web. 13

December 2011. <<http://calitreview.com/248>>

Thuy, Tram Dang. Last night I Dreamed of Peace: The Diary of Dang Thuy Tram. London:

Harmony Books, 2007. Print.

Literature Review: Acute Coronary Syndrome

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Acute coronary syndrome is caused by lack of adequate blood in the heart. In particular, the condition occurs when the coronary arteries are blocked hence limiting their ability to supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscles. Unstable angina refers to the chest discomfort that is caused by the lack of enough blood flow. Unstable angina is more severe compared to stable angina but less severe than myocardial infarction. Unstable angina which is also known as the angina pectoris is characterized by pain in the chest. When the left anterior descending artery is occluded, the walls of the left ventricle, the interventricular septum and other parts are affected. When the right coronary artery is affected the right atrium and the left ventricle become ischemic. On the other hand, when the circumflex artery is occluded the left ventricle, atrium, fasciculus, and the bundle branches become ischemic.

The etiology of this condition focuses on the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. The process starts with endothelial dysfunction. Endothelial dysfunction refers to a condition whereby the inner linings of the endothelium fail to function properly. Remember, the endothelium plays an important role in regulating blood clotting but this function is likely to be affected by several conditions including metabolic syndrome, hypertension, smoking and inactivity. According to Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall and Zaman (2012) endothelial dysfunction is characterized by an imbalance between vasodilating and vasoconstricting substances, and an increase in leucocyte adhesion, hence leading to vascular reactivity. Ultimately, endothelial dysfunction leads to atherosclerosis.

According to the American Heart Association, more than a million people are affected by this condition every year. In 2006 alone, more than 1.4 million patients were discharged with a primary or secondary diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome. Currently, there are more than 7 million people living with this condition. Beside death, coronary heart disease can lead to premature, chronic disability to the affected patients. Following a discharge, patients suffering from acute coronary syndrome require re-hospitalization within the first six months. One in every five patients diagnosed with non-ST elevation myocardial infarction and ST-segment elevation, dies after hospitalizations. In total, acute coronary syndrome accounts for half of all mortality related to cardiovascular diseases. The cost of rehabilitating patients with acute coronary syndrome is enormous. The direct costs of treatment are estimated to be $75 billion while the indirect costs of treating patients with acute coronary syndrome are more than $142 billion.

A number of studies have been conducted to examine the threat of Acute Coronary Syndrome among the American population. One such study was conducted by Doyle, Simon, and Stenzel-Poore (2008) using a Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance. Using self-reported data, the researchers found out that the Southern Eastern states are the ones that are heavily affected by the Acute Coronary Syndrome menace. The study analyzed the risk factors that are responsible for the high prevalence rates in the South Eastern states. One of the risk factor that was examined is the ethnic background and socioeconomic status. The southern eastern part is mainly occupied by minority communities including the blacks and the socioeconomic status of the occupants there is much lower compared to the rest of the nation. The high prevalence rate can also be explained by the lifestyle factors such smoking. The southeasterners also suffer from contributing diseases such as diabetes, coronary heart diseases and hypertension. Due to the high prevalence rates, death rates as a result of Acute Coronary Syndrome are also significantly higher, in the southeastern regions, compared to the other parts around the nation.

Acute Coronary Syndrome has affected other developed countries. In the UK, Acute Coronary Syndrome is a leading cause of disability, and a leading cause of death. Currently, there are around 1 million Acute Coronary Syndrome survivors while an estimated 150,000 people are diagnosed with Acute Coronary Syndrome every year. The majority of those affected by Acute Coronary Syndrome in the UK are the elderly and the leading risk factor is obesity. In England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, 25% of the whole population is considered obese. The levels of activity among the residents in these four countries are also very low and this explains why Acute Coronary Syndrome is responsible for a significant percentage of deaths that are reported in the country. Overall, £ 8 billion is spent in Acute Coronary Syndrome-related costs.

Developing countries have not also been spared either. In India the prevalence of Acute Coronary Syndrome has been on the rise and this occurrence has been attributed to an increase in the aged population. In Cuba, the crude mortality from Acute Coronary Syndrome is 84 per 100,000 population while in the neighboring countries it is the second leading cause of death (Bonita & Beaglehole, 2871). Just like in India, a significant percentage of the total population in Cuba is made up of elderly people. Incidences of Acute Coronary Syndrome in the developing countries are attributed to several factors. Firstly, low and medium income earning countries account for almost 80% of all chronic noncommunicable diseases that are reported in the world. At the same time, the local population in the developing countries continues to engage in lifestyle choices such as eating high-fat diets, smoking and living a sedentary lifestyle. As the residents continue to adopt the western lifestyle it is expected that the prevalence of Acute Coronary Syndrome will continue to rise. These statistics illustrate to us that Acute Coronary Syndrome is a serious condition which takes huge resources to rehabilitate patients. In addition, the disease has an adverse effect due to the loss in productivity. It is on this basis that it becomes important to evaluate the events surrounding the disease and how it can be prevented and managed.

Literature review

Acute cardiovascular syndrome is a form of cardiovascular disease and is a leading cause of death in the America. Death results when the atherosclerotic plaque breaks up hence stimulating platelet aggregation and thrombus formation. The thrombus formed then prevents myocardial perfusion. Remember, the myocardial cells require oxygen to function properly but the formation of the thrombus restricts the supply of the oxygen hence increasing the myocardial demand for the oxygen. As a result, the ischemic tissues become necrotic leading to decreased renal perfusion. Ultimately, decreased renal perfusion stimulates the release of renin, angiotensin, aldeosterone, antidiuretic hormone hence increasing workload of myocardium.

Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall and Zaman (2012) evaluated the role of the endothelial cells in the atherosclerosis process. In the article Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall and Zaman Balasubramaniam (2012) argues that endothelial dysfunction plays a pivotal role in the expression of atherosclerosis. When the endothelium becomes impaired it fails to maintain vascular homeostasis. As a result, a number of abnormalities are experienced and they include loss of nitric oxide, over-production of vasoconstrictors, and reduction of the ability to control inflammation, thrombosis and cell growth. The endothelium also plays the role of producing vasodilators such as nitric oxide, and prostacyclin while regulating the effect of vasoconstrictors such as endothelin-1 and angiotensin. The loss of vasodilators and over-production of vasoconstrictors affects the integrity of the arteries. One such vasoconstrictor is angiotensin. Angiotensin not only plays an important role in the loss of normal arterial compliance and patency, but it also mediates the plaque weakening process in a number of ways. Firstly, it leads to the up-regulation of the IL6 gene which is produced by the plaque microphages. Secondly, it leads to the up-regulation of the MMP genes which then lead to the degradation of the plaque fibrous cap. Thirdly, it leads to the activation of the nitrogen-activated protein kinase cascades and tyrosine kinases. Finally, it mediates the stimulation of neo-vascularisation.

In the article, Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall and Zaman (2012) further look at the impact of the risk factors such as diabetes in the progression of atherosclerosis. In their view, diabetes mellitus is a strong predictor, and the studies that have been conducted indicate that patients suffering from diabetes have very a little opportunity of recovering from Acute Coronary Syndrome. Mortality rates for diabetes mellitus patients with acute myocardial infarction are also high. In this article, they also look at the role of endothelial NO synthase in the inflammation process. As a vasodilator, eNOS plays an important plays an important role in preventing leukocyte (Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall & Zaman, 2012) adhesion while maintaining the antiflammatory state of the endothelium. However, the Acute Coronary Syndrome leads to the low production of eNOS and the endothelial cells are activated to produce vascular cell adhesion molecules such as the VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. These vascular cell-adhesion cells promote the adhesion of the leukocytes to the endothelial surface.

In this article, Balasubramaniam, Viswanathan, Marshall and Zaman (2012) further argue that diabetes increases the platelet aggregation and adhesion process in several ways. Firstly, the condition leads to reduced platelet membrane fluidity. Secondly, the condition leads to increased production of thromboxane, hence increasing platelet sensitivity. Thirdly, it increases the expression of platelet adhesion molecules and the number of platelets. These two actors play an important role in the pro-coagulant activity. Fourthly, diabetes increases the expression of platelet surface receptors and generation thrombin. Fifthly, diabetes mellitus reduces the sensitivity of the platelets to the effects of the vasodilators. Sixthly, platelets of patients with diabetes mellitus are rich in cytokines and chemokines which contribute to inflammation of the endothelium. These findings are supported by Al Thani et. al. (2012) who concluded that diabetes is an independent predictor for presence of polyvascular diseases and Acute Coronary Syndrome.

Another study that was conducted by Zhong, Tang, Zeng, Wang, Yi, Meng, Mao, and Mao (2012) investigated the role of cholesterol content in atherosclerotic plaque progression. Zhong et al. (2012) used a sample of 136 participants. The researchers assessed the cholesterol content of erythrocyte membranes. It is well acknowledged that cholesterol plays an important role in plaque formation. The key feature of the plaque formation is the erythrocyte membrane. Erythrocyte membrane is a key source of cholesterol in plaques. Their findings are supported by Giannoglou,Koskinas, Tziakas, Ziakas, Antoniadis, Tentes, and Parcharidis (2009) who found out that CEM in Acute Coronary Syndrome patients is significantly higher that in patients with stable angina pectoris. In the study, Zhong, Tang, Zeng, Wang, Yi, Meng, Mao, and Mao (2012 also (2012) investigated some of the factors that determine the size of the plaque in the artery. Obviously, the amount of the cholesterol determines the size of the lipid core. The researchers concluded that erythrocytes played a major role in plaque expansion by increasing the lipid content. In addition, they argued that cholesterol encouraged apoptosis of macrophages and formation of foam cells.

The role of the low-density lipoproteins as a cause of Acute Coronary Syndrome was investigated by Meisinger, Baumert, Khuseyinova, Loewel, and Koenig (2005). Very Low-density lipoproteins are secreted from the liver, and are then converted to low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). LDLs may accumulate in the artery wall if their rate of removal is low (Meisinger, Baumert, Khuseyinova, Loewel, & Koenig, 2005). The LDLs stimulate the endothelial cells to express the monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (Meisinger, Baumert, Khuseyinova, Loewel, & Koenig, 2005). MCP-1 then attracts monocytes from the blood. In addition, LDLs encourages differentiation of monocytes into macrophages. Macrophages promote the formation lipid-cell foam cells, which are the hallmark of the atherosclerosis process. Following this narration it is rather apparent that low-density proteins mark the start of atherosclerosis process, and its subsequent progression.

Plaque rupture

According to Kumar and Cannon (2009) the molecules in the endothelium mediate the adhesion of leukocytes on the endothelial surface. The monocytes penetrate the endothelial wall, where they interact with oxidized LDL, transforming into foam cells. The foam cells produce cytokines and other substances that maintain atherosclerosis progression. The plaque usually has a thin fibrous cap which is destabilized by the inflammation cells such as the monocytes, macrophages and T-cells. In the article titled, Coronary events, Armin, Masataka, Renu and Valentin (2012) revisit how the plaque forms and how it later erupts. An atherosclerotic plaque normally has a large necrotic core but a small layer of the fibrous cap. The expansion of the atherosclerotic plaque is facilitated by the accumulation of free cholesterol, and macrophage infiltration. The fibrous cap only has a few smooth muscle tissues and is often inhabited by macrophages and T lymphocytes. Once the fibrous cap erupts, it exposes the thrombogenic materials to the blood stream. Following the rupture of the plaque, thrombi are formed. It is the rupture of the fibrous cap that leads to the development of unstable angina and myocardial infarction.

A lot of research has focused on how the plaque ruptures. One likely cause is the accumulation of T-lamphocytes and microphages-derived foam cells which secrete cytokines and proteolytic enzymes leading to the depletion of smooth muscle cells. The apoptosis of smooth muscle cells is promoted by the mast cells which are abundant in the plaque. The reduction of the smooth muscle cells impairs the repair process. Remember, smooth muscle cells produce the cap-stabilizing collagen and so a significant reduction of the cells is likely to have deleterious effects. Plaque rupture is also facilitated by the blood flow-induced shear stress. It is assumed that as the plaque grows, the tensile stress on the plaque shoulders increases hence leading to fissuring and subsequent rupturing. Armin, Masataka, Renu and Valentin (2012) found out that areas of low shear stress had advanced plaques than areas with high stress. Armin, Masataka, Renu and Valentin (2012) further notes that not all plaque ruptures lead to coronary events.

Armin, Masataka, Renu and Valentin (2012) examined the atherosclerotic process and the effect it has on the size of the artery. During the initial stage, the size of the artery is usually normal. In the second stage, as the plaque formation progresses, the artery remodels itself to avoid lumen encroachment. In the third stage, the plaque ruptures and hemorrhages leading to formation of intramural thrombi. Armin, Masataka, Renu and Valentin (2012 notes that mostly the plaque heals and continues to grow. Alternatively, the thrombogenic materials may be embolized distally leading to coronary arterial insufficiency or asymptomatic micro-infarctions. In the fourth stage, if the right conditions exist, the rupture of the plaque leads to the occlusion of the affected arteries.

In the article, Armin and his colleagues also looked at the interplay of factors that contribute to acute coronary event risk (2012). One factor is plaque burden which is determined by the blood viscosity, platelet function, stress and smoking (Armin, Masataka, Renu & Valentin, 2012). The other coronary plaque characteristic is lumen encroachment which depends on shear stress, circadian variation, obesity, catecholamine surge and pollution (Armin, Masataka, Renu & Valentin, 2012). Other coronary plaque characteristics include lesion locations, plaque composition, plaque biology, plaque configuration, endothelial dysfunction and plaque remodeling (Armin, Masataka, Renu & Valentin, 2012).

On their part, David and Valentin (1999) looked at the activities surrounding the atheromatous plaques. The formation of plaques according to David and Valentin (1999) can be traced to the early lesions. Early lesions then grow bigger as the extracellular lipid and cholesterol content increase and fibrous cap grow thin. This development according to David and Valentin (1999) occurs in 5 phases. During phase 1 the development of lesion types I-III occurs while in the phase 2, lesion types IV and Va develops (David & Valentin, 1999). Plaque disruption starts from phase 3, eventually leading to the growth of more complicated plaques. The acute coronary syndrome occurs in phase IV, when plaques are more complicated (David &Valentin, 1999). However, plaques may fail to rupture and occlude the affected arteries. Such plaques characterize the last stage of the plaque development.

Clinical sequellae and symptoms

The eruption of the fibrous cap exposes the content of the plaque to the blood elements. In addition, an alteration of the blood flow is experienced around the ruptured plaque and the blood flow supporting myocardial distal is reduced (David &Valentin, 1999). Vasoconstriction at the site of the ruptured plaque makes coronary events to become much more severe. (David &Valentin, 1999) If the ruptured plaque does not significantly disrupt the flow of the blood, only an asymptomatic progression of the lesion is experienced (David &Valentin, 1999). On the other hand, if the rupture leads to complete vessel occlusion, acute myocardial infarction results (David &Valentin, 1999). The common symptoms of Acute Coronary Syndrome include chest pain, arrhythmia, shortness of breath, fatigue, weakness, heart palpitations, nausea, numbness, confusion, slurred speech, vertigo and headache.

Diagnosis

Detection of atherosclerosis is one of the main objectives of the diagnostic tools. One such advancement is the use of plasma markers. One of the markers that have been used widely is the C-reactive protein and the lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2. Such markers are used to predict coronary events. Using peripheral blood has become popular due to the low cost that is associated with this process. An alternative method that is used in diagnosing coronary patients is the non-invasive imaging. Some of the imaging tools that can be used for identifying vulnerable carotid plaques include: ultrasound, MRI, nuclear imaging and X-Ray multi-detector. A CT angiogram and a nuclear scan could also be used to check the site of rupture and identify whether the arteries are constricted or blocked. Other diagnostic tests include an electrocardiogram, blood tests, chest X-ray, and coronary angiogram.

Interventions

Reperfusion therapy

In the article titled, Acute coronary syndromes: diagnosis and management, Cannon and Kumar (2009) looks at the interventions for the acute coronary syndrome. Reperfusion therapy has been found to improve patient outcomes. The efficacy of reperfusion therapy in acute coronary syndrome was tested in a study that was conducted by Desai (2008). The 80 participants in this study were all Acute Coronary Syndrome patients. The two researchers also compared the efficacy of the percutaneous balloon angioplasty and systematic thrombolysis. The two interventions were found to increase systolic and left ventricle functions.

Antithrombotic therapy

According to Kumar and Cannon (2009) the aim of this intervention is to maintain the patency of the infarct-related artery. Antithrombotic therapies are augmented by anti-platelet strategies such as aspirin and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists. Antianginal therapy could also be used and use of nitrates to reverse the vasospasm, reduce the coronary blood flow at the site of rupture and the myocardial oxygen demand.

Coronary surgery and angioplasty

It is apparent that administration of anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic drugs improves the chances of survival to the patients. These drugs are often used before percutaneous coronary or surgery revascularization is performed. The coronary surgery is performed to bypass the affected portion of the coronary artery. The grafted artery goes around the area with the plaque, a process that creates a new path for oxygen-rich blood. The efficacy of coronary artery bypass surgery is supported by a study that was conducted Kumar and Cannon (2009). All the participants in this study had ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. The result of the study indicates that high-risk patients who undergo surgery intervention have very high chances of survival. An alternative to the bypass surgery is the percutaneous coronary surgery otherwise known as coronary angioplasty or balloon angioplasty. The process entails using a catheter with a balloon at the tip. Once in place, the balloon inflated to compress the plaque against the artery wall. This process targets unstable plaques which have thin fibrous caps, lipid full macrophages, and deficient smooth muscle cells. During balloon angioplasty, a stent is used to maintain the patency of the occluded arteries.

References

Al Thani, H., El-Menyar, A., Alhabib, K., Al-Motarreb, A., Hersi, A., Alfaleh, H., Asaad, N., Saif, S.A., Almahmeed, W., Sulaiman, K., Amin, H., Alsheikh-A., Alnemer, K. & Suwaidi, J. (2012). Polyvascular disease in patients presenting with acute coronary syndrome: its predictors and outcomes. Scientific World Journal, 2012, 284851

Armin, A., Masataka, N., Renu, V., & Valentin, F. (2012). Acute coronary events. Circulation, 10(1), 1147-1156

Balasubramaniam K, Viswanathan G, Marshall S, & Zaman A. (2012). Increased Atherothrombotic Burden in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus and Acute Coronary Syndrome: A Review of Antiplatelet Therapy. Cardiology Research and Practice, 2012, 1-18

Bonita, R., & Beaglehole, R. (2007). ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME prevention in poor countries: Time for action. Stroke, 38(11), 2871–2

David, E. G. & Valentin, F. (1999). Pathophysiology and clinical significance of atherosclerotic plaque rupture Cardiovascular Research, 41(2), 323-333

Desai, N.D. (2008). Pitfalls assessing the role of drug-eluting stents in multivessel coronary disease. Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 85 (1), 25–7.

Doyle, K. P., Simon, R. P., & Stenzel-Poore, M. P. (2008). Mechanisms of ischemic brain damage. Neuropharmacology, 55, 310.

Giannoglou, G., Koskinas, K., Tziakas, D., Ziakas, G., Antoniadis, A., Tentes, I., & Parcharidis, G. (2009). Total Cholesterol Content of Erythrocyte Membranes and Coronary Atherosclerosis: An Intravascular Ultrasound Pilot Study. Angiology, 60(6), 676

Kumar, M.D. & Cannon, C. (2009). Acute coronary syndromes: Diagnosis and Management. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 84(10), 917-938

Meisinger, C., Baumert, J., Khuseyinova, N., Loewel, H. & Koenig, H. (2005). Plasma oxidized low-density lipoprotein, a strong predictor for acute coronary heart disease events in apparently healthy, middle-aged men from the general population. Circulation, 2; 112(5):651-7.

Zhong, Y., Tang, H., Zeng, Q., Wang, X., Yi, G., Meng, K., Mao, Y., & Mao, X. (2012). Total cholesterol content of erythrocyte membrane is associated with the severity of coronary artery disease and the therapeutic effect of rosuvastatin. Upsala Journal of Medical Sciences, 117(4): 390–398

Benefits and Risks of Virtual Reality in Healthcare Education and Training

After reading the articles: “Effectiveness of virtual reality in nursing education: Meta-Analysis INCLUDEPICTURE 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* MERGEFORMATINET Links to an external site.,” “Virtual reality sickness: A review of causes and measurements INCLUDEPICTURE 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* MERGEFORMATINET Links to an external site.,” and “Variations in visual sensitivity predict motion sickness in virtual reality INCLUDEPICTURE “/var/folders/wh/j35sct490lngp4v3kw6j2snr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/svg+xml;base64,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” * MERGEFORMATINET Links to an external site.,” contribute your insights by filling in the tables below.

 

Please comment on other students’ posts (at least 3).

 

Table 1. Actual and/or potential effects of VR in meeting the needs of healthcare professionals during training.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Effects of Virtual Reality

Positive Negative

Physiological needs Safety needs Love and belonging needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs  

Table 2. Actual and/or potential effects of VR in the learning outcomes of healthcare professionals.

Bloom’s Taxonomy (Revised in 2001) INCLUDEPICTURE “/var/folders/wh/j35sct490lngp4v3kw6j2snr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/svg+xml;base64,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” * MERGEFORMATINET Links to an external site.Effects of Virtual Reality

Positive Negative

Remembering concepts Understanding concepts/problems to solve Applying concepts to solve problems Analyzing concepts/problems to solve Evaluating knowledge and skills Creating new knowledge and skills  

Provide your references in APA style (7th edition).

Name:

Professor:

Course:

Date

Benefits of a Criminal Justice Degree

Many support the idea that a solid education is vital for one to succeed in any career. The field of criminal justice has a wide range of professions, which raises the question of what level of education is required to get into the field and go up the career ladder. Many careers in the field of criminal justice only require a high school diploma or a GED. To answer the question as to whether a college degree is necessary to succeed in criminal justice, it is only basic to describe success. As mentioned, since many careers in this field do not require a college degree, then success in any of them would render the degree not very important. However, I define success as going up the ladder from a graduate level. So this essay will discuss why a college degree equals success in the field of criminal justice.

For any field and success in every path in life, a college degree is beneficial in various ways. In order to go up the career ladder in the field of criminal justice, advancement in education is also necessary. This means that obtaining a degree before gaining employment will be instrumental to career growth since the next step will be a master’s degree, which is always a basis for most promotions. In comparison to a person that begins with a high school diploma, the one with a college degree will most likely be promoted faster. A college experience is also very beneficial to the achievement of success besides those of having that level of education. Spending time in an academic institution is very crucial to laying the groundwork for future success. There is the aspect of creating contacts with people that will hold certain positions in the same field in the future. The environment created by college enables students to hone and perfect skills that will be instrumental in the field of criminal justice regardless of the exact job. A good example is writing a report, which is a crucial part of any job in criminal justice.

Subjects that are taken through the course of the degree give the graduate an opportunity to develop articulation skills and the ability to defend points of view. Considering the nature of this field, articulation is very important in dealing with people, either the general public or those within a potential chain of command. A career in criminal justice means scrutiny in every single way one conducts themselves or takes action or inaction. In order to succeed in the field then, one should be able to positively deal with criticism and give feedback as to why they have taken this point of action.

The most important college-level class one can take in the field of criminal justice is interpersonal communications. The ability to operate in a field filled with various sorts of personalities can only translate to either failure or success or even in extreme circumstances getting home safely. Tests are a major assessment tool to measure the performance of various criminal justice professionals. These tests also include written ones, which means test-taking in college is essential and applicable in the field.

The field of criminal justice is extensive, with many career opportunities. It can be a point of entry into law studies or send one into the field of politics, advocacy, law enforcement, and academia, to mention a few (TBS). Going into the prestigious and more competitive world of corporate law means a rise in social status. This is because it means huge salaries and a rise in income, which translates to a different level of social class. Also, the field of criminal justice sends one to ethically driven causes such as politics and public policy. Politicians are respected figures in society and hold a high position in society. Within any social class, occupation is essential because it offers financial rewards, stability, and other benefits. With a degree in any field of criminal justice means movement from the lower middle class to upper-middle class, which is made of lawyers to the upper social class, made up of the elite who include corporate lawyers, politicians, and capitalist elite.

A path in the field of criminal justice most often leads to entry into the legal field, with some majors going into law school to become lawyers. A degree in criminal justice is a crucial steppingstone to becoming a lawyer. Many politicians start as lawyers before running for office mostly because of their ability to effectively articulate themselves and their extensive knowledge of the law. In the same manner, investigation groups and think tanks on any political concern or issue have at least one individual with criminal justice expertise, if not a lawyer (Lesley). In addition, the contributory use of criminal justice as a basis of democratic projects has evolved over the eyes, putting criminal justice majors at the center of politics. Criminologists have played a crucial role in political projects and have been influential in shaping the political terrain. This is a demonstration that the field of criminal justice has a direct connection with politics, and getting up the political ladder is easy with a criminal justice basis.

Because of the nature of the field of criminal justice, certain skills and traits are essential to longevity and growth in whatever career pattern affiliated to the field one chooses. Learning does not stop with the degree, which makes continuous learning and development important to achieve success. The changes in technology make it essential for students in law enforcement to create a plan that helps in adapting to a landscape that is under continuous evolution (Malvik). With the hope of moving into a leadership position, higher education is necessary.

Essentially, the course of action, in addition to a bachelor’s degree in order to advance in the field of criminal justice, is to hone certain essential skills. These skills include critical thinking because of the nature of the field, which presents one with high-pressure situations requiring quick reaction. Being able to adjust with speed and calculate the outcome of certain actions is key to accomplishment in this field. The other skill is ethical leadership. The field of criminal justice is filled with critical dilemmas, which calls for the ability to uphold moral principles. Acting in violation of ethical rules may lead to the loss of credibility, job, and in worst cases facing litigation. Verbal and non-verbal communication is another key skill since experts in this field find themselves in circumstances where they are required to make public speeches or conduct briefings, stating the status of a certain case. Non-verbal communication skills apply in reading the body cues presented by another person, be it a criminal or a witness. It would not also be bizarre to want to be physically fit because of safety reasons.

Works Cited

Lesley McAra, Can Criminologists Change the World? Critical Reflections on the Politics, Performance and Effects of Criminal Justice, The British Journal of Criminology, Volume 57, Issue 4, July 2017, Pages 767–788, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azw015Malvik, C. “Experts Explain Everything You Need to Know About Careers in Criminal Justice.” 13 July 2014, www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/justice-studies/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-careers-in-criminal-justice/.

TBS. “What Can You Do with a Criminal Justice or Law Degree?” TheBestSchools.org, The Best Schools, 17 Sept. 2019, thebestschools.org/degrees/criminal-justice-law-degrees/. Accessed 29 Nov. 2019.

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A Movie review for 28 Days Later

28 days Later is a fascinating movie as it depicts the use of apocalyptic scenes as the theme of its views. It is a movie that runs for 108 minutes, directed by Danny Boyle in 2002 and written by Alex Garland. I love the movie, and I would rate it as my best zombie movie. The zombies appear to be so real, and the video makes me feel I am among the survivors seeking for help. The film begins when some animal rights activists break into a research facility that contains chained chimps and displaying some horrifying images. They ignore the warnings from the researcher who gets terrified from the attack; he warns them not to open the cage as the chimps are infected CITATION You02 l 1033 (Video). They ignore the warning and free the animals, and they get brutally attacked by the chimps leading to a bloody massacre.28 days down the line, Jim wakes up from a coma and wonders why he is alone. He takes a walk to a church where he finds a pile of dead bodies and wonders what had happened. The wind blows some old newspaper towards him, and at this point, he learns about the virus affecting London. After some minutes, Selina and Mark appear and take Jim to a hiding place where they explain to him that the only way to escape is to find the Manchester soldiers. Not knowing what awaits them, they begin the journey towards the North in search of the soldiers.

Selina and Mark explain to Jim that in an event one is attacked by the zombies, you only have 20 seconds to kill the person before they turn to zombies and kill you instead. Even though the movie is full of horrific apocalyptic scenes, Boyle brought a concept that was relevant to the era of AIDS, West Nile Virus, SARS, and acts of civil unrest among the people. The survivors of the 28 Days needed Buffy the zombie slayer than just humanitarian help CITATION Rot18 l 1033 (Rotten Tomatoes). The plot to this play drives a familiar incidence in our society where a lot of news report of the suffering of some people and the pain goes unattended to as the international community turns back on the problem the casualties face. The spread of the disease imposes a threat as it manifests as something more than just a virus. The survivors try to escape through the thin air, and some feel like burying themselves just to avoid the terrific attack by the zombies. It seems like Africa to me as millions of people try to evade the effect of hanger and terror attacks without any help.

The music that plays in the background of the film speaks volume. It tells us more about the inhuman nature of human beings since nobody is ready to help the people under zombie attacks. It explains that the survivors should not seek help from the military but instead seek powers from heaven to shield them. In comparison to all other films that I have watched, 28 Days Later has won my trust as the only movie that manifests an increasing cinematic focus on anger. Michael Elliot describes the film as a period of apocalyptic treatment, violence, and survival of human beings in the face of adversities CITATION Rot18 l 1033 (Rotten Tomatoes). As no other cinema watched, it is a quiet science fiction movie containing thinking characters and engages an audience too that are required to believe as well.

Boyle directs a film that shows the inner rage that lies inside of human beings. Even though many people will claim to be friendly, kind and loving, their real character showcases in times of danger. Through this play, Boyle shows the dark side of human beings by showing how bad an ordinary person can turn to be the worst. It shows how an average person can behave when pushed to the wall.

Another thriller act that the movie exhibits is how the zombies behave. Boyle changed this assumption that zombies must move slow and drag themselves to zombies moving very fast just like ordinary human beings. He illustrated that even though the zombies could get killed by a shot in the head, human beings were killing themselves with shots of anger. He as well as changes how the official story ends with at least the main characters surviving, although in his case no one escaped and this brought much of paradigm shift in the science fiction movies CITATION Jef03 l 1033 (Overstreet). The video showcases some sense of originality as in the cases where the zombies attacked you, you did not die as in other films, but you were “shot” with rage and majorly affected you psychologically.

The use of camera work is professional as compared to other films as they employed creativity in their shoot. The cameras by then were of poor quality, but amidst this, there was a mixture of camera scenes that made the whole experience fascinating. The scene where Jim goes to church and finds some viewers regard a pile of dead people as disturbing because it reminds them of the 9/11 terror attack that occurred in America and people were looking for dead bodies of their loved ones CITATION Rot18 l 1033 (Rotten Tomatoes). The movie succeeds in its attempt to show apocalypse. The zombies attacking human beings are just a good scene for the apocalypse, and the apocalyptic intensity is high.

Works Cited BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bole, Danny. “28 Days Later.” YouTube, commentary by Oliver Harper, 14 Aug. 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ylDI3gNUb8.

Overstreet, Jeffrey. “28 Days Later.” Crosswalk.com (2003). Retrieved from https://www.crosswalk.com/culture/movies/28-days-later-11621477.html

Rotten Tomatoes. 2003. 27 April 2018 <https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/28_days_later>. Retrieved from rottentomatoes.com/m/28_days_later

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A Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier

Joseph Plumb Martin was born in November 21st of the year 1760 in Becket, Massachusetts. He was the son to Reverend Ebenezer Martin and Susannah Plumb. When he was seven years he was sent to live with his grandparents in Milford, Connecticut and because his family was well to do, Martin was privileged to receive a well-rounded education to which included reading and writing. Plumb Martin was a soldier in the Continental Army and as well a Connecticut Militia during the American Revolutionary War. During the war, Martin possessed the rank of private for most of the war. After the war, Martin considering that he was educated, was devoted to writing a memoir of his experiences as a soldier in the Revolutionary War. The narrative that punished his encounters was rediscovered in the 1950s and became one of the most valuable resources for the historians in the attempt to understand the conditions of a common soldier during the era. Besides understanding the conditions of war, the historians were as well enlightened about the battles that Martin participated.

When Martin was 15 year of age in the year 1775, he was eager to join the revolutionary war just like most of his age mates in the region following the Battles of Lexington and Concord. At first, his grandparents were opposed to the idea but later agreed after Martin’ threats to run away and join the naval ship as a privateer in case the grandparents didn’t allow him to leave. In June 1776, Martin joined the Connecticut Militia and was assigned duty in the New York region as he arrived just before the opening of the British Long Island Campaign. Martin’s first tour of duty ended in December of the same year 1776, and therefore he was forced to return home before the Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Plumb Martin later reenlisted in the Continental army in April 1777 and this time signed for the duration of the American Revolutionary War. Martin served with the 17th Continental Regiment under the command of General James Varnum.

Joseph Plumb Martin participated in various notable battles that included the Battle of White Plains, Battle of Brooklyn, and the siege on Fort Mifflin as well as the Battle of Monmouth. Plumb Martin was encamped at Valley Forge, he witnessed John Andre’s escort for his prosecution, and as well he was present during the climatic Siege of Yorktown. In 1778, Marin was assigned to the Light Infantry, and here he attained the rank of Corporal. In the summer of 1780 under the directives of Washington for the formation of Corps of Sappers and Miners, Martin got a recommendation by his superior officers to be a non-commissioned officer of the regiment. After being selected, Martin was promoted to the rank of a Sergeant. Unlike the duties in Yorktown, the corps were commissioned and made responsible for the digging of the entrenchments for the Continental army. During the battle, the corps were also a Vanguard for the regiment command by Alexander Hamilton and were therefore mandated with the duties of clearing the fields of sharpened logs that were known as abates would be able to capture Redoubt number ten.

Plumb Martin was discharged from his duties in June of the year 1783, just a few months before the Continental Army was disbanded in October. From there, Martin became a teacher and taught in the New York for a year eventually settling in Maine’s frontier becoming one of the founders of the town of Prospect that is near the modern-day Stockton Springs. He was known locally as being a farmer, a selectman and as well a Justice of the peace and town clerk, one of his last positions that he served for 25 years. He married Lucy Clewely 1794, who was born in 1776 and together had five children. Plumb Martin wrote many stories and poems, and one of the most famous is the narrative of his experiences during the revolutionary war in the 1830s.

When the Revolutionary war overwhelmed his country in the year 1776, Plumb Martin was just like any other sixteen-year-old kid and just like the other boys, and he was forced to join the Rebel Infantry. Unlike the other soldiers in the battle, Marin recorded his trials and tribulations after forty-seven years later in the memoir named A Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier: Some of the Adventures, Dangers, and Suffering of Joseph Plumb Martin. In the true American style, the Narrative contradicts the standards of the time and rather than worshipping the Revolutionary Army for its moral perfection as well as flawless character, the Narrative provides an unflattering and realistic perception of the burdens and problems and through the book, Plumb Martin offers a staggering truthful image of the Revolutionary War.

Plumb Martin entered the Revolutionary war at a young age with the primary aim of protecting his country demonstrating his patriotism while at the same time wanted to experience the adventures in the war that was worth telling. Martin was devoted to fighting due to his patriotism and therefore engaged in the battle dutifully from 1776 to 1783. Together with his company, they participated in seven battles, and some of them include the Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Princeton and Fort Mifflin. Throughout the six years of service that Martin served as a Militia, he was lucky to escape serious wounds and capture and only got severely ill at a single occasion and this incidence exhibit the stunning physical impunity for the pre-medically competent times. Martin’s battles both minor and major were haunted by his ‘constant companion’ that is hunger that was punctuated by the almost unbearable cold during the night.

Throughout the Narrative, Plumb Martin disapproves the conception that war is combative as he describes arduous marches as well as tedious waiting far more than the battle itself, downplaying bloodshed while at the same time highlighting the daily struggles. The narrative being a historian report indicate that the revolutionary army was usually short on the supplies, but their deprivation is often minimized in the wake of the Battles such that of Princeton and New York battles. The author of the narrative brings to light the plight of the Revolutionary war soldiers through his story of the Continental Congress’ overlooking the troubles of the army during the winter of the year 1777. Where the Congress provided the military with a shockingly sparse thanksgiving dinner that constituted of a tablespoon of vinegar and a quarter cup of rice to the hungry soldiers indicating that the soldiers were starved as their welfare was not well catered. However, besides being malnourished, the revolutionary soldiers were not well furnished with clothes. According to the narrative, the horror stories of the 1777-78 Valley Forge winter report was only part of the deprivations that the revolutionary soldiers were subjected to and he narrates that men did not only march with their bloody bare feet but also went without socks, pants and even coats.

Apart from being honest regarding the nature of the war, Plumb Martin discloses the bare facts that concerned the soldiers fighting in the war. Ever since the end of the revolutionary war, the revolutionary officers and the footmen were lauded for their honesty, chivalry and near perfection, but unfortunately according to Plumb Martin, the stories exaggerate as it is proven by his description of the officers’ unfair treatment of their soldiers, disrespect from the citizens as well as their questionable treatment of both parties. The civilian distrust of the war soldiers were according to Martin was sadly founded as, although the American soldiers never abused the countryside as their enemies, they often scavenged or even stole from the available farms. According to Martin’s accounts, he himself admitted leading numerous of such raids to the farms to scavenge for food. As a result of their overbearing handling of their soldiers, the officers occasionally received harsh treatments from their subordinates. Plumb Martin narrates of several younger soldiers’ packing a musket with black powder and then setting it off near their elderly captain’s tent to make him terrified as a result of being mistreated.

Plumb Martin wrote the ‘Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier’ in a firsthand account, and therefore the reader is made to easily believe in Martins accounts as they are stimulated I the memoir. The reason is that when a narration is provided in the first account, it enables the reader’s trust the author as the author is considered as a credible source of truthful information as they provide information according to their experiences with the events. Therefore, with Plumb Martin detailing the problems to which the foot soldiers of the revolutionary war passed through that included neglect, starvation, disrespect, humiliation and harsh treatment. In overall, the Narrative is a realistic book that is recorded in unusual point of view and commonly readable details as the nineteenth-century authors were too lengthy in descriptions with an example of Adventures of Oliver Twist by Dicken. The book by Martin uses a straightforward language that is enough to make sense to a reader of the 21st century. The potential problem with the narrative is the repetition in storytelling as the reader is taken into circles of the problems such as freezing, starving marching and waiting, although they provide an accurate account of the events as they happened during the war.

Work Cited Leckie, Robert. George Washington’s War: the saga of the American Revolution. HarperCollins, 1992.

Martin, Joseph Plumb. A Narrative of a Revolutionary Soldier: Some Adventures, Dangers, and Sufferings of Joseph Plumb Martin. Penguin, 2010.

Washington, George, and Continental Army. The American Revolution: 1775-1783. Vol. II. Boston: Little, Brown, 2014.

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Benedict XVI by Laurence Paul Hemming

The focus of this paper is to provide an analysis Laurence Paul Hemming’s “Benedict XVI”

The first four pages of the paper provide the summary of the main theological ideas found in the book. The paper proceeds to discuss students believes of the best theological points made by the author. The paper dedicates the final page to arguments or points made by the author.

Laurence Paul Hemming’s Benedict XVI is dedicated to the theological view of the Catholic Church. The author talks about the reign of the pope from the time of his election in 1995. The book thus acts as a biography of the life of the pope before and during his election.

One of the theological ideas in the book talks about the liberation theology. This idea calls for the merging of the gap between the rich and the poor. The theology gets its ideas from the Marxism and socialism roots which fights against the oppression of the common man. This movement is mostly concentrated in Latin America the strength of the Catholic Church is felt the most. The church plays a significant role in addressing social ills such as oppression, inequality and injustice by the influential in the community (Hemming, p. 241).

The theology challenges political systems that focus of the growth of individual people as opposed to the society as a whole. The governments are known to cater for the need of the wealthy minority. This ignores the plight of the majority who live under the poverty line. Pope Benedict takes on the role of his predecessors who oppose this system of governance. Over the years, the catholic leaders have changed their stance on the theology due to the change in society. Pope Benedict is at the forefront of the opposition of the theology due to its association with the laws of Marxism. One of the reasons for his position is the impact of the socialist movement on the economy. Sociology controls all the aspects of the lives in a socialist community. This makes them oppressed due to the lack of choice. The system is meant to improve the livelihood of the community. This is not the case in that people in socialist states do not have the power to improve their situation in society (Hemming, p. 246).

The Catholic Church has changed its view of the democratic theory which advocates for working for the truth. The truth in this case reflects on the image of pope benedicts and his massage to the new Roman Catholic Church. This as a result has changes the dynamics of the governance of the Latin countries. Pope Benedict is one of the advocates for the phasing out of the liberation theology. The theology is said to be outdated and more oppressive compared to other systems. The author ensures that he explains the inception of the theology from its inception to present day. Its existence has played a significant in the running and the Catholic Church and the Latin countries.

The liberation theology has not only had an impact in the Latin American countries. It has spread to other continents such as Europe and Africa. The book gives examples of the Africa which is the poorest continent in the world. Most of the people in the continent are under privileged due to the immense corruption that exists in the continents. The Catholic Church places emphasis on the treatment of the poor. This is due to Jesus association with the less privileged in the community. Pope Benedict’s visit to Benin saw his call for the unification of the country. He taught about perseverance in times of hardships so as to succeed in life. The book elaborates on the pope’s contribution to the less fortunate in the community as a whole.

The theology seeks to condemn the evil activities in the Catholic Church. Over the years, the church has received a bad reputation for its treatment of followers. One of the issues is the corruption within the clergy. The clergy is known to ask for payments in exchange for prayers. This defies the teachings of the Bible which states that people should not pay for prayers. The church is also known to support the upper-class society which tends to mistreat the poor. This is different from their stance to fight for the rights of the less fortunate. The book is significant in the study and the understanding of the church’s history. It guides the reader on the introduction of different policies over the years. The church has undergone a number of reformations due to the dissatisfaction of followers. The protesting of the Catholic Church led to the creation of Marxism ideas which are predominantly liberating theologies. This is one of the factors that distance the church from the new theories (Hemming, p. 303).

The book talks on the progress the church has taken to improve the state of the church in social matters. One of the steps taken by the church is the call to distance the church from political matters. This gives the church a neutral stance and maintains its initial role which is to observe the religious aspects of the country. The Catholic Church has been accused of taking over public matters not related to the church. This takes away the original intention of the church whose role is to observe the moral standing of the society. The Catholic Church has a significant role in all matters political. The church has on several occasions determined the selection of new leaders into the respective governments.

Theological ideas are reflective of the on the beliefs and cultural norms of the society. Most of the ideas are intended to improve the livelihood of the members of the community. The church is responsible for overseeing the needs of the common man. One of the ways this is made possible is through its involvement with all aspects of the society’s activities. One of the areas that the church makes its position known is the political situation of the Latin countries. The current Catholic Church however insists on distancing itself from public matters. This involves making public statement on political issues concerning the society. Hemming talks about the evolution of the church from the earlier rule of the previous popes to pope Benedicts rule. He showcases the difference in the way Benedict’s approaches different situations. The liberalization theory is one of the many theories that were practiced in the church. This theory stands out due to its implication on society. The author brings out the impact of the theory on the rest of the world.

The best theological arguments students believe made by the author

As a student it is essential to form a personal opinion in relation to the content of the book. One of the arguments that the author brings out is the change of the role of the Catholic Church from the times of its inception to the present day. The church has gone through a number of changes over the years. This is owed to the change in ideological ideas, leaders and factors such as globalization. The Catholic Church is one of the most authoritative churches in the world. This is credited to the role it has in terms of social and political influence. The change in culture is inevitable due to the level of innovations over the years. The shift from the Catholic Church to protestant displayed the dissatisfaction the people had with the church.

This is one of the aspects that have led to the change of the organization of the church. The church as a result has changed the way they interact with their members. Pope Benedict represents the modern Catholic Church. This is displayed by his recent statement on the support of democracy. Democracy is the opposite of liberal socialism in that it supports the elements of a free market. Liberal socialism aimed to fight for the needs of the less fortunate. The church was one of the advocates for social liberalism. Despite this they did not follow the teachings of the theology. This led to the failure of the theology which paved way for the introduction of new theologies.

Arguments made by the author

The author formed his own argument based on the study of the life of the pope. One of the arguments the author makes is the contribution of Pope Benedicts to the Catholic Church from the time of his inauguration. Pope Benedict was sworn as the new pope. He managed to maintain the principles of the Catholic Church while embracing the new society.

The author main argument is based on the pope’s role in improving the public image of the church. Pope Benedict has made an impact on the church’s relations with other denominations. This is reflective of the new ideas that support integration and respect. The author looks at the strength of the current pope in the political society. The pope still uses his authority to fight for the quest of the ordinary man. Despite the shift from the liberation theology, the pope maintains the same objectives forms by the church. The author elaborates on Pope Benedict’s motto that states the “Fellow worker for the truth”. This places emphasis on the popes desire to maintain a truthful nature when practicing the catholic religion (Hemming, p. 123).

The author has dedicated the better part of his life researching on the life of Pope Benedicts. The book acts as an analysis of the pope’s successes and failures during his leadership of the church. The pope has managed to oppose the extreme conservatives of the church who oppose the rule of the Vatican. The pope on the other hand has distanced the church from traditional theological aspects such as liberation theology. This has managed to maintain the balance of the church in terms of their traditional roots and their adaptation to the modern world.

Works Cited

Hemming, Laurence P. Benedict Xvi: Fellow Worker for the Truth ; an Introduction to His Life and Thought. London: Burns and Oates, 2005. Print.

A Model For Incorporating Specialist Nurse Education Into A University Context

Bruce, J. & Klopper, H. C. (2010). A Model for Incorporating Specialist Nurse Education into a University Context. Part 1: Methodological Perspectives. Health SA Geosndheid 15(1):1-6.

Bruce & Klopper (2010) article is a review of possible ways to integrate specialist nursing education in colleges with university education. They acknowledge that with recent changes in the higher education sector following amendment of legislation regulating it the future of specialist nursing education in colleges is bleak. They argue that the current legislation does not consider nursing colleges as part of the higher education and as such they see the need to incorporate them with institutions of higher learning. They argue that the transformation from college to university education in educating specialist nurses will bring some challenges. They for instance see a challenge, in terms of conflict in values espoused in traditional nursing, which they argue universities tend to contest. However, they also observe that there is need to have university education which brings an element of research, but in the same time develop ways to ensure that the traditions of this discipline are not jeopardized. Therefore, their paper was intended to ensure that in future as university takes over from college in nurses’ education, the element of specialist nurse education is incorporated into the new system. The paper sought to look at relevant concepts of this education in the context of a university institution and ways that these might be understood in order to develop an appropriate model for it integration. This particular paper describes methodology the authors used to develop their model of integration of specialist nurse education offered in colleges into the higher education sector, which is construed to mean university level.

The paper objectives were organized into two. In the first phase the authors looked at opinions of professional nurses with regard to specialist nurses in colleges as offered in the university. In the second phase the author focused on the model for integrating specialist education in university. Their study was developed based on a qualitative research model. They argued that this model was appropriate for the study because it was exploratory, contextual and descriptive. As such they assert that exploratory design of the study enabled them to collect the opinions of participants, mainly including practitioners and nurse educators, with regard to provision of specialist education in the university. This approach is mainly used for research of new phenomenon that has not been studied and because provision of courses offered in colleges at university had not been studied previously, the exploratory design was appropriate.

The study collected information through tools like focus groups, and as such the author argues that they need a descriptive study to record accurately information gathered. The contextual design limited the study to Gauteng province and within the bounders of specialist nurse education. Participants in the study were picked through purposeful sampling technique. Sampled nurse educators were organized into groups of 17 participants and nurse practitioners organized into groups of 13 participants and information collected through focus group technique. The data from the focus group was written and analyzed by being organized into themes to allow interpretations. Apart from focus group data was also gathered through individual interviews method.

The authors also describe how the second objective of model creation was attained. They arrange this into three phases of concept development, statement development and theory development. The authors used the concept synthesis strategy to develop concepts acquired through data collection. They then used the statement synthesis strategy to specify link between various concepts identified from the study. Lastly, in the theory development section, the authors used theory synthesis strategy to bring together the relational statements emerging from the statement development phase to create their proposed model for specialist nurse education. Therefore, in terms of the results, collected concepts from interviews were used to develop relational statements to pool information generated about university education in relation to practice of specialist nursing. Because the authors used a qualitative research they describe various reasons why research could have been untrustworthy and what was done to enhance trustworthiness. For instance, to enhance research trustworthiness a peer review committee examined the credibility of the study. The questionnaire used in the interview was also evaluated by independent experts in the field of qualitative research. Credibility of information given by participant was also preserved by having 7 to 4 of them check data to ensure accurate translation. The authors further, acknowledged that due to reliability on researcher and participants in making inferences, it is possible that future research might diverge rather than converge with their findings. As a result, they argue that dependability in the study was enhanced through in depth description of methods used in the research and use of independent coders to determine consistency of the coding. The other issue that the about notes as a threat to trustworthiness of qualitative research is neutrality of the researcher. In this regard they note that they attained this by having an expert look at interview transcript to ensure that there was no data distortion.

This is a very important article for practice nursing education. It is relevant in that it covers an issue that needs to be taken into consideration as education for nursing is transformed in South Africa following the enactment of 2008 Higher Education Amendment Act. It was published just two years after this amendment which highlights that information gathered through the research is of significant value in development of the nursing profession. Again, because it uses a qualitative research method the authors were able to gather opinions of large number of people. This is particularly important as the sampling method was purposeful only recruiting practitioner nurses and educators. The authors have presented the need for a model to incorporate specialist nursing education in university context, especially by citing works of other researchers who have identified criticism of nursing traditions at the university level. They have also justifiably argued for the selection of various methodologies in developing this model for instance the decision to pick a qualitative design. Though the researchers have well argued why the current study can be trusted, there is need to undertake further study. They establish quite a number of possible weaknesses with the research design that can compromise trustworthiness of their conclusion. As a result, there is need to undertake further research in order to collaborate their findings. For instance, they note that dependability of the current findings is compromised by biases of both participants and researchers.

Generally, the paper is well written with adequate information. The author have justified properly why there was need to undertake a study to develop a model for incorporating specialist nursing education in the university context. The language used is not necessary for the professional nurses, but can also be understood by the general audience. However, there are certain weaknesses in the paper design. For instance, it is not easy to locate the findings of the study. The decision to separate the model developed from the methodology was not appropriate. The authors in so doing, deny the audience from understanding their findings on how well the specialist nursing education could be integrated into the university level.

In conclusion, this paper has marked a great step in development of professional nursing. First it has demonstrated how qualitative methodology can be used to study phenomenon that have not been explored previously. Information provided in the paper can be used by students in the nursing practice to develop their own research studies and to defend the trustworthiness or credibility of their conclusions. In addition, it is the first study to explore integration the specialist nursing education as practiced in the traditional nursing colleges in South Africa, with the new system that recognize university as the only level where higher education should be offered. As such, this paper has contributed in several ways in development of the nursing profession. There is room for future research as the author has highlighted in his analysis of the flaws of qualitative research. These researches should not diverge from the present study, but rather they should to corroborate the findings of this research by using different research design and data collection techniques. Additionally, the authors of the present study have noted that one of the major weaknesses of the present study is overreliance on researcher and participants in establishing connections. This means that triangulation of research or having many researchers undertake the same research may enhance reliability of the findings.

References

Bruce, J. & Klopper, H. C. (2010). A Model for Incorporating Specialist Nurse Education into a University Context. Part 1: Methodological Perspectives. Health SA Geosndheid 15(1):1-6.