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Hong Kong Cinema 1940s-1980s

The Hong Kong cinema industry has been characterized by exaggerated action-packed drama that involves swordplay and gunplay. The aspect of ghosts and dead ancestors combined with the action is what differentiates the Hong Kong cinema from the others in the world of entertainment. The film industry has been in existence for almost a century now. During the years of civil war, the film industry became very prosperous making Hong Kong the home of free markets in the region. After the Second World War, Hong Kong grew tremendously becoming one of the leading cities in the world.

In the mid 1960s, martial arts become a common genre in almost all films produced in Hong Kong. This was something that was part of the Chinese culture and that is why these films became broadly accepted especially in Hong Kong and other countries that appreciated the Chinese culture. This made Hong Kong one of the leading exporters of films in the world. These films were gaining world wide acknowledgment and were in great demand. In the United States, martial arts were discovered in the 1970s by most audiences through Bruce Lee who was one of the greatest actors of these films at that time. The interest showed by Americans was a major boost for these films. Film makers and distributors took advantage of this and started importing many films into the United States. The making of these films was easy because they were cost-effective and this was another factor that contributed to the thriving martial arts in its incorporation in the film industry.

The most significant thing about these films is that they are cost-effective and they exploit one aspect about the human experience. An example of the well-known directors in Hollywood producing Chinese films is John Woo who concentrates on the aspect of honor and bond loyalty between men which deeply affect the lives of humans. The most important thing brought out by these films is their desire for exploitation. Most people who are audiences of these films believe that they are the most fascinating as compared the others.

In the 1980s, the Hong Kong film industry started moving towards modernization. Many directors wanted to incorporate the martial arts genre in their films and so some of the well-known directors migrated to the United States to make these films. So as to fit with the modernized world, the use of emotions and women were incorporated into these films to show appreciation for marriage and family. Women were becoming more independent and they could no longer be neglected in the making of these films. The age where women were only seen as housewives was coming to an end, but this is not to say that they totally replaced the men in the film industry.

It is not possible to focus on different angles when referring to Hong Kong films. It incorporates many things including fine arts, martial arts love and honor. The Hong Kong film industry was mainly based on the Chinese culture when it started off. However with the modernization of the films, the film has taken a different turn addressing issues not only affecting the Chinese but also other parts of the world so as to relate to all its audiences. However, the films up to date are striving to maintain those elements that distinguish them from other films.

Honor Killing

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Honor killing is the murder of an individual from a family by different individuals, because of the culprits’ conviction that the victimized person has brought disgrace or shame upon the family or has disregarded the standards of a group or a religion, as a rule for reasons, for example, declining to enter an orchestrated marriage, being seeing someone is opposed by their family, engaging in sexual relations outside marriage, turning into the casualty of assault, dressing in ways that are considered unseemly, or taking part in gay person relations.

The social highlights which prompt honor killings are complex. Honor killings include savagery and trepidation as a device of looking after control. Honor killings are contended to have their cause among traveling people, groups, and herders: such populaces carry their assets with them and with a danger of having them stolen and do not have the legitimate response to the law. Thus, motivating trepidation, utilizing hostility, and developing notoriety for rough vengeance keeping in mind the end goal of the secure property that get linked to different practices. In social orders where there is a feeble principle of law, individuals must form savage notorieties.

In numerous cultures where honor is of focal quality, men are sources or dynamic generators/operators of that respect while the main impact that ladies can have on honor is to obliterate it. When the honor is devastated by the lady, there is a requirement for quick retribution to restore it, all together for the family to abstain from losing face in the group.

Honor killings are frequently an aftereffect of firmly patriarchal perspectives on ladies and the position of females in the public eye. In these conventional males ruled social orders whereas women are subordinate first with their father and afterward on their spouse, whom they are relied upon to comply. Women are seen as property and not as people with their own particular office. All things considered, they must submit to male power figures in the family – inability to do as such can bring about amazing viciousness as the discipline. Roughness gets seen as a method for guaranteeing agreeability and counteracting rebellion. According to Shahid Khan, ladies are viewed as the property of the guys in their family independent of their class, ethnic, or religious gathering. The proprietor of the property has the privilege to choose its destiny. The idea of proprietorship has transformed ladies into a product which can get “traded, purchased and sold”. In such societies, ladies are not permitted to take control of their bodies and sexuality: these are the property of the guys of the family, the father (and other male relatives) who must guarantee virginity until marriage; and afterward the spouse to whom his wife’s sexuality is subordinated – a lady should not undermine the possession privileges of her gatekeeper by captivating in premarital sex or infidelity.

The idea of family respect is exceedingly critical in numerous groups. The family is seen as the principle wellspring of honor, and the group exceedingly values the relationship in the middle of honor and the crew. Actions by relatives that may be viewed as wrong and seen as conveying disgrace to the family according to the group regularly incorporate female practices that are identified with sex outside marriage or method for dressing, however, might likewise include male homosexuality (like the emo killings in Iraq). The family loses control in the group, and may be disregarded by relatives. The main way the disgrace can be deleted is through a killing. The way of life in which respect killings occur are typically viewed as “high-connection”, where the family is more vital than the individual, and individualistic self-governance is seen as a risk to the aggregate family and its respect

Honor killings or a superior portrayal are a marvel generally bound to the Muslim world yet not a solitary Islamic nation is free of the custom. Honor killings have their root in an obscene and antiquated Arabic statement, “A man’s honor lies between the legs of a lady.” Muslim ladies who having sex before getting into marriage, including assault, or to have raised suspicions with respect to their behavior, i.e.- be just associated with having had unlawful association with a man out of marriage are regularly murdered to recapture the family “respect”. Anyhow, infidelity, or loss of virginity or its suspected misfortune, is not by any means the only defense, in the psyches of Muslims, for merciless homicide. Wedding without the consent of the family, rebellion, leaving home without authorization, or even an evidently search has given thought processes to murder. Furthermore, in a couple of cases, ladies watched smoking cigarettes has led to their deaths.

Be that as it may, for whatever of the above reasons that the male individuals from a Muslim family feel that a female part has disrespected the family, the execution is by and large completed by a nearby male relative of the awful lady; by a father, sibling, or uncle. These homicides mirror a mentality immense to more humanized social orders, however, are consistently rehearsed in Muslim nations and starting to show up in different countries with Muslim populaces, including the United States and Canada. Factual proof is hard to get, not from any Islamic nations to shroud the certainties just that “honor killings” are such an acknowledged custom of Muslim social orders, which numerous authorities of the diverse countries would be shocked at any enthusiasm for the matter.

Muslim courts are particularly indulgent concerning honor murders. Jordan, one of the more edified nations of Islam, if this term can be utilized concerning any Muslim nation, has even arranged honor murders. Until as of late revoked, Article 340 of the Jordanian Penal Code was sure about the matter, “He who finds his wife or one of his female relatives submitting infidelity and executes, wounds or harms one or the two, is excluded from any punishment.” And, Jordan is one of the more “edified” Muslim nations. On the books are different articles that protect that a Jordanian man will be excluded from arraignment or if nothing else be treated with mercy if leading an honor murder. It generally would comprise of a couple of months in jail.

According to Soltani (2013), even the conduction of a hymeneal examination is basically a passing warrant for a lady. That is, even suspecting an unmarried woman is not a virgin, as prove by an examination requested by a male individual from her family, will prompt her murder. It is further expressed that the post- mortem examinations on a few casualties of honor killings revealed that they had an in place hymen. It implies that the suspicion of people is not enough to warrant honor killing. It can be concluded that beside unwanted culture practices, the proof of the act is not clear unless there is clear evidence.

Muhammad (2014) illustrates the two sisters, 27 and 20 years old were hacked to death by their own particular siblings. Their law violations, according to their family: the more seasoned sister had left home to wed a man without her family’s consent, and two or after three years, the more youthful sister had fled to go along with her. Some “well-wisher” of the family uncovered the sisters’ location. The other siblings entered the home with tomahawks and hacked the ladies to death

But the family “respect” had been saved. It is very ironical to me. I totally refute with the strongest terms. The culture or religious norms are meant to protect and not to harm. It is true that customs guides the way member of the society exist with each other. However when it is going to the extent of killing and calling it honor killing-is not honoring the human life. It is against the rights of a person to live. In the modern times, things have changed and modernization as well as globalization has taken the center stage. People must not get rooted in destructive ways of living (Al Jazeera, 2014). In Egypt,there were 775 instances of reported murder in 1988, 49 of the killings, or 16% of them, were to “wipe out disgrace”, a term used to portray, “honor” killings. Notwithstanding the homicides which, in any event according to Muslim families, are defended, numerous fake honor killings happen. These are examples where a man kills another man and cases that the man had relations with one of his female relatives. In this way, he keeps his own particular head, however to the detriment of the unjustifiably charged lady, who has been yielded in the holy place of “family respect”. Sometimes, a relative of a Muslim woman is diminished with the obligation of securing the family respect and the appropriate nation expects this commitment. In some Muslim countries, two exemptions are that there is no charge for affirmation and the snacks sold by merchants are distinctive; however the environment is much the same. The wild cheering of the group is then not for a splendid but for the clean beheading of a human head. The two different occurrences delineate the Muslim mentality (Panniyankara, 2014).

Each time the expression “honor killing” is utilized, we see the homicide of ladies through the eyes of their executioners. By including “honor” to executing, we utilize the dialect of the individuals who legitimize this detestable wrongdoing on the premise of “noteworthy” thought processes. We utilize the dialect of their reasons. We must quit doing this (Appiah, 2014).

Semantic marks matter. The expression “honor murdering” not just cedes an excessive amount of energy to the culprit, yet is hostile to survivors and ladies. Rather, we have to see the wrongdoing through the eyes of those assaulted, in light of the fact that these demonstrations of sexual orientation brutality assault something more than ladies’ bodies, something dubious and valuable: the test by a large number of gutsy young ladies around the globe to harsh patriarchy and stifling social tradition. In this sense, they are an assault on all of us (Dias & Proudman, 2014).

There are different misinterpretations with respect to the act of honor slaughtering. The primary misinterpretation about honor slaughtering is that this is a practice that is constrained to the provincial regions. The reason is that the issues are spread over such a vast geological region, to the point that we can’t detach honor killings to country regions just, however one needs to concede that larger part of the killings occur in the provincial ranges. Be that as it may, it has additionally been seen as of late that even the metropolitan urban areas are not sheltered from this wrongdoing on the grounds that 5 honor killings were accounted for from Delhi and in Tamil Nadu; a girl and child in law were executed because of marriage within the same gotra. So it can be seen unmistakably that respect slaughtering is not confined to rustic territories but rather additionally to urban regions and as effectively called attention to, it has a wide land spread. The second misinterpretation in regards to respect killing is that it has religious roots. Regardless of the possibility that a lady submits infidelity, there must be four male witnesses with great conduct and notoriety to approve the charge. Besides just the State can complete legal disciplines, yet never an individual vigilante. Thus, we can obviously see that there is no religious sponsorship or religious roots for this shocking wrongdoing (Panniyankara, 2014).

What is the possible action to keep such a marvel from happening? Firstly, the attitude of the individuals needs to change. What’s more, when we say that the mindset needs to change, we intend to say that folks ought to acknowledge their youngsters’ wishes seeing marriage as it is they who need to lead an existence with their life accomplices and on the off chance that they are not fulfilled by their life accomplice then they will lead a shocking wedded life which may even end in suicide. Also, we have to have stricter laws to handle these sorts of killings as this is a wrongdoing which can’t be acquitted on the grounds that. People don’t have the privilege to record capital punishments of pure kindred people.

References

Al Jazeera , (2014). How can we stop honour killings? Retrieved from:

HYPERLINK “http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/06/how-can-stop-honour-killings-201461819244152343.html” http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/06/how-can-stop-honour-killings-201461819244152343.html

Appiah, K. A. (2014).No Honour in Honour Killing: Recovering Shame as a Moral Force.

Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2014/07/01/4036910.htm” http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2014/07/01/4036910.htm

Dias, D & Proudman, C. (2014). Let’s stop talking about ‘honour killing’. There is no honour in

murder. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jun/23/stop-honour-killing-murder-women-oppresive-patriarchy” http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jun/23/stop-honour-killing-murder-women-oppresive-patriarchy

Muhammad, (2014). Honor Killing. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.allaboutmuhammad.com/honor

killings.html” http://www.allaboutmuhammad.com/honor

killings.html

Panniyankara, A. (2014). Honor killing in India. Retrieved from:

HYPERLINK “http://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/Essay/honor-killing-in-india2.html” http://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/Essay/honor-killing-in-india2.html

Soltani, K. (2013). Honor Killings: How Islam Can Help Prevent Them. Retrieved from:

HYPERLINK “http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/honor-killings-november-2013” http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/honor-killings-november-2013

Honors Project

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Biologically, not much is known about the history of the earth for the first three billion years. Some questions such as when the first life appeared on earth and its source remain unanswered.

Before the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), which occurred about 2.45 billion years ago, our Earth’s ozone layer had not yet been formed. Since the ozone layer is useful in shielding life from the harmful UV radiation, phototrophs such as cyanobacteria were affected by the formation of the ozone layer since they required the solar radiation as an input in photosynthesis and other metabolic processes (Codd, Morrison & Metcalf, 2005, p267). However, this also exposed them to lethal UV radiation that can cause direct and indirect damage to the macromolecules such as proteins and DNA of all cellular life in this planet. Since the stratospheric ozone layer came into after the great oxidation event, failure of the event happening would have made microbial life adopt a wide range of strategies to survive under the harsh UV radiation, most probably by producing UV-blocking chemicals also known as microbial sunscreen compounds. In order to determine if microbial sunscreen biosynthesis is a form of a strategy that cyanobacteria adopted to mitigate the harmful effects of UV radiation before formation of the ozone layer, time machine would be a great option if Stephen Hawking can manufacture one, but that is not feasible for the time being. This study will aim to find out whether microbial sunscreen production like scytonemin is one of the mitigation strategies adopted by microbes in the past through the study of microbial mats and cyanobacteria like Lyngbya aestuarii from Shark Bay, Western Australia. As we know, microbial mats from Shark bay, Western Australia are the analogues of ancient microbial mats and stromatolites, so the study of these modern mats may inform us how microbes in the ancient stromatolites/ microbial mats might have protected themselves from the harmful UV radiation in the past.

Using the above assumptions on manufacture of UV radiation shielding compounds, I plan to pursue my Honors study at University of New South Wales by focusing my studies on explaining how cyanobacteria protected itself from lethal UV radiation in the past; the study will focus more on the microbial sunscreen biosynthesis. Analysis of microbial sunscreen production from the microbial mats of Shark Bay would be of paramount importance, as it will help in explaining how the first living organisms on earth became resistant to the harmful UV radiation before the formation of ozone layer. This study may also be important in finding whether life could be present in other planets that do not have a protective layer from UV radiation. I will be honored to work under the supervision of Professor Brett Neilan and Dr. Brendan Burns from the Australian Centre for Astrobiology (ACA), since they are some of the leading researchers in cyanobacterial research, astrobiology and other areas of environmental microbiology. I have chosen to pursue my Honors study at University of New South Wales because of its reputation and scientific achievements, which will greatly help me build my career as a great researcher in cyanobacterial.

References

Codd, G. A., Morrison, L. F., & Metcalf, J. S. (2005). Cyanobacterial toxins: risk management for health protection. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 203(3), 264-272.

Hookah and Human Health: Health and Social Risks of Hookah in Saudi Arabia

Department of Health Sciences

Health Professions Education

Prospectus

Table of Contents

Section Page

1. Introduction3

Description of the Local Problem3

Rationale of the Local Problem and Purpose of the Study5

2. Review of Literature6

Hookah Usage6

Health Risk8

Research Question(s)11

3. Description of Proposed Research Methods and Procedures11

Methods11

Procedures11

References12

Hookah and Human Health: Health and Social Risks of Hookah in Saudi Arabia

Section 1

Introduction

Description of the Local Problem

One should note that there are different means for smoking tobacco throughout the world. One of them is the use of hookahs. A hookah is defined as a water pipe designed for smoking the flavored tobacco. It is also known as shisha, argilah, goza, or hubble-bubble. The hookah requires the use of the flavored tobacco in order to give it a different taste from that of a cigarette (Chaouachi, 2009).

Cobb et al. (2010) argue that the use of hookah has substantially increased over the last two decades in the world. The tendency is particularly evident among the youth aged from 18 to 25 years. The high level of the hookah smoking has also led to the establishment of bars where smoking is the most popular activity. The research shows that a large number of hookah smokers think that smoking tobacco through hookah poses less risk than smoking it through other means including cigarettes.

According to Ahmed et al. (2011), medical experts have found that a single shisha session might be as dangerous as smoking 200 cigarettes at once. It is explained by the fact that cigarettes contain more than 4000 chemicals and toxins. Furthermore, smoking increases the health risks around the world (Almohrej, Altraif, Tamim, & Fakhoury, 2014). In the United States, about 2,242 online shops sell hookah tobacco and related products. Moreover, approximately 175 hookah lounges and cafes can be found only in California. It is important to underline that in Los Angeles, most of the cafes are located near universities and college campuses (Hanna, O’Connell, & Woo, 2014). However, the popularity of hookah smoking is larger in Middle Eastern countries than in the United States (Griffiths, Harmon, & Gilly, 2011).

Rationale of the Local Problem and the Purpose of Study

Rationale of the Local Problem. The rationale for the study is the observation that nations of the Middle East experience a high level of hookah use. Its effect in Saudi Arabia is worse than in the USA because of the easy access to hookah in every region. The health risks associated with hookah smoking also influenced the choice of the local problem. Saudi Arabia has a high rate of the health and social risks associated with smoking hookah. It have forced the government to introduce effective prevention measures and prohibit the use of hookah in the country (Baboor, Alnazzawi, Abu-Hammad, & Dar-Odeh, 2014). Cigarettes pose a significant health threat to smokers and non-smokers. However, hookahs are more perilous than cigarettes (Chaouachi & Sajid, 2010). In Saudi Arabia, smoking in public places has been prohibited since 2004. However, the country occupies the fourth position in importing tobacco worldwide. Moreover, the tobacco consuming (including hookah smoking) has led to the economic loss. The loss accounts for approximately 20.5 billion dollars for the last ten years (Almohrej, Altraif, Tamim, & Fakhoury, 2014).

There are different health and social risks related to the hookah smoking. The former ones, which are associated with hookah smoking in the short term, include raising the blood pressure and heart rates of smokers. It puts smokers at a high risk of developing such conditions as cardiac arrests and strokes (Ben, 2009). Also, hookah smoking results in damaging the major arteries of the body that results in the limited supply of blood to the brain (Mirjana, Steven, & Zang, 2010). In addition, the water pipe usage contains the same toxicants as cigarettes, including drug nicotine, cancer causing, pulmonary disease, as well as acute intoxication caused by the carbon monoxide (Eissenberg, 2013). Furthermore, hookah smoking is directly connected with the adverse pregnancy outcomes, especially a low birth weight (Hanna, O’Connell, & Woo, 2014).

The Purpose of the Study. The purpose of the study is to develop an education Reference Judie for the Saudi Arabian hookah smoker. The Reference Judie will help to understand the risks of hookah smoking. It will help to substantiate the claims regarding the rate of risks associated with hookah smoking in the country. Since the previous researches have already identified some risks caused by the hookah use, the study aims at determining the level of these risks. The ways of becoming addicted to hookah will also be the central focus while the developing the education Reference Judie.

Section 2

Review of Literature

Hookah and Human Health: Health and Social Risks of Hookah in Saudi Arabia

Section 2

Review of Literature

Hookah Usage

Definition of Hookah. The notion of hookah should be comprehended as a waterpipe used to pass charcoal heated air through tobacco and through a water-filled chamber (Chaouachi, 2009). The synonym of hookah, shisha, specifically constitutes for the particular sort of tobacco that is used in hookah. Its peculiar characteristic features are moistness and stickiness as a result of being soaked in the extract of molasses or honey. There are also other names of this type of tobacco, for instance, narghile, goza, arghileh, or hubble bubble (Chaouachi, 2009). Shisha is also characterized by variety of flavors, which are usually fruit ones, whereas exotic scents include caramel, cinnamon, mint, and other extraordinary options (Eissenberg, 2013).

History. Hookah is an ancient tradition that has been deeply rooted in the culture of many countries, especially in the Eastern part of the world (Chaouachi, 2009). Smoking hookah has been traditional related to Middle Eastern, Asian, African, Indian, and Turkish cultures for more than 500-year-old (Griffiths, Harmon, & Gilly, 2011 ).

India and Middle East. According to Ray (2009, p. 1319). “Hookah smoking has been practiced for over 400 years.” The court of Emperor Akbar started using and popularizing the habit of hookah smoking (Ray, 2009).

The first hookahs are regarded as primitive and simple in comparison with the modern ones. The basis for the first hookahs was a coconut shell and a tube with a so-called ‘head’ attached (“Hookah Smoking: A Growing Threat to Public Health”, n.d.). Moreover, it is very important to highlight that the initial tobacco for smoking via hookahs was not a contemporary mixture of shisha and fruit, but some time for hashish and opium in India (Ray, 2009).

The art of making hookah became more popular, and it is relevant to emphasize the fact that masters of hookah were treated with significant respect at that time as far as the procedure was very complicated and required special skills and knowledge. The hookah rooms were situated in the coffee houses and cafes (Ray, 2009).

It is essential that there was no difference in terms of sex, and both male and female representatives smoked hookah in India (Ray, 2009). Hookah started in India, then, smoking hookah extended to Persia and the Parisians were called it Narghile. Then it spared to Turkey, and Ottoman Empire at the early of 17th century. Later, hookah practice extended to North Africa and the middle of the Middle East (including Saudi Arabia) and it was called shisha (the glass bottle) (Ray, 2009).

Europe. The hookah has been practicing in Europe since the British came to India at 1950s, and some of them smoked the hookah for a fashion way until the other form of fashion smoking came and replaced it (Ray, 2009). At the 1990s, hookah smoking spread from West Asia, northern Africa, and South East Asia to parts of Europe, and Russia. The spread of hookah was there because of the immigrants from West Asian origin and their restaurants that offer the hookah (Ray, 2009).

The United States of America. The phenomenon of hookah became popular in the 1990s to be fashionable as cigars smoking were (Sterling & Mermelstein, 2011). Though, the level of significant popularity slightly lowered with the course of time, and the issues of harm hookah may cause to a smoker’s health started being taken into consideration. Actually, contemporary investigations into the issue from different angles identified obvious harm that regular smoking of shisha causes to human health, namely, cardiac arrests and strokes, damage cause to the major arteries of the human body, contribution to the development of cancer, pulmonary disease ((Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012).

Health Risk

Cardiac Arrests and Strokes. Any kind of tobacco (especially when it is used regularly and in a big amount) subsequently causes heart diseases. The phenomenon of hookah also belongs to this list as far as it also reduces blood flow to the heart and at the same time often appears to be a reason for high blood pressure (Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012). Moreover, it impacts blood vessels, and it is also considered to be a way to the stroke (Selim, Fouad and Ezzat, 2013). According to Aslam, Saleem, German and Qureshi (2014, p.1), “Many studies report that a mean increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate of shisha smokers is observed after shisha smoking.”

Cancer. Cancer may be also considered to be one of the horrible consequences of tobacco use in general and regular hookah smoking in particular (Eissenberg, 2013). According to the article “An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use” (2007), “Waterpipe tobacco smokers are exposed to cancer-causing chemicals and hazardous gases such as carbon monoxide. Waterpipe users are also exposed to nicotine, the substance in tobacco that causes addictive behavior” (p. 1). The aspect of addictive quality is a crucial one as many young people consider hookah to be less harmful than traditional cigarettes (Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012). The same tendencies are supported by the work “Hookah Smoking: A Growing Threat to Public Health” (n.d.) provided by the American Lung Association.

According to contemporary investigations, one course of hookah is equaled to 200 cigarettes that have been smoked at a time. Hence, smokers tend to smoke hookah regularly, and such experience increases the probability of cancer development in the future. It is an alarming tendency as 54,4% of student respondents to the survey conducted by Rahman et al. (2012) have the experience of smoking hookah, and the addictive potential of the smoking habit is also very high and needs proper and timely intervention (Morris, Fiala, & Pawlak, 2012).

Pulmonary Disease. The session of smoking hookah is dangerous for lungs as far as the smoker of hookah inhales larger amount of nicotine in comparison with those who smoke cigarettes, which can cause pulmonary disease (Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012).. The tobacco that is used for hookah smoking is usually heated by means of charcoal or wood cinders. This aspect is also very dangerous as potentially harmful chemical elements such as metals and carbon monoxide are released in this process (Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012). The same data is supported by Ondov and Seltzer (2010).

Negative Pregnancy Outcomes. Hookah smoking is strongly prohibited for pregnant women. Moreover, it is not recommended in the period when a woman is taking birth control pills because it may result in strokes and development of heart disease and complications (or even anomalies) in the embryo (Rahman, Chang, Hadgu, Salinas-Miranda, & Corvin, 2012). The child may have difficulties with the breathing process after the birth, which may cause development of serious respiratory diseases as well as low birth weight (Chaouachi, 2009).

Damaging of the Major Arteries of the Body. The process of damaging the major arteries and its intensity as well as threat to health depends on the amount of the tobacco that has been smoked and regularity of the habit (Selim, Fouad, & Ezzat, 2013). The major arteries become gradually clogged as a result of permanent hookah smoking habit (Selim, Fouad, & Ezzat, 2013).

Social risk

Image.

Laws.

Peer pressure.

Smoker Knowledge, behavior

Education

Health.

Social.

Reference Judie.

Section 3

Description of Proposed Methods and Procedures

The Research Question(s)

Research Methodology

The method used for this paper was developmental.

Procedures

Assumptions.

Limitations.

Rationale.

Inclusion criteria.

Exclusion criteria.

Search procedures.

Libraries used. There was one library used. The ( The name of the university library) was used for this project.

Search engines and databases used. There were two databases used. The databases were PubMed and EMBASE.

Search terms.

Boolean strings.

References

Ahmed, B., Jacob P., Allen, F., & Benowitz, N. (2011). Attitudes and practices of hookah smokers in the San Francisco Bay Area. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 43(2), 146-152.

Almohrej, O., Altraif, S., Tamim, H., & Fakhoury, H. (2014). Will any future increase in cigarette price reduce smoking in Saudi Arabia? Annals of Thoracic Medicine, 9(3), 154-157.

Baboor, A., Alnazzawi, A., Abu-Hammad, O., & Dar-Odeh, N. (2014). Unconventional materials and substances used in water pipe (narghile) by smokers in central western region of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 35 (8), 890-893.

Ben, S. H. (2009). The narghile and its effects on health. Part I: The narghile, general description and properties. Revue de Pneumologie Clinique 65(6), 369-75.

Chaouachi, K. (2009). Hookah (shisha, narghile) smoking and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). A critical review of the relevant literature and the public health consequences. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6(2), 798-843.

Chaouachi, K., & Sajid, K. M. (2010). Cancer risks of hookah (shisha, narghile) tobacco use require further independent sound studies. International Journal of Cancer, 127(7), 1737-1739.

Cobb, C., Ward, K. D., Maziak, W., Shihadeh, A. L., & Eissenberg, T. (2010). Waterpipe tobacco smoking: An emerging health crisis in the United States. American Journal of Health Behavior, 34(3), 275-285.

Eissenberg, T. (2013). Tobacco smoking using a waterpipe (hookah): What you need to

know. AANA Journal, 81(4), 308-313.

Griffiths, M., Harmon, T., & Gilly, M. (2011). Hubble bubble trouble: The need for education about and regulation of hookah smoking. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 30(1), 119-132.

Hanna, M., O’Connell, A., & Woo, M. (2014). Hookah smoking among young adults in southern california. Nursing Research, 63(4), 300-306.

Kamal, C., & Mohammad S. K. (2010). A critique of recent hypotheses on oral (and lung) cancer induced by water pipe (hookah, shisha, narghile) tobacco smoking. Medical Hypotheses, 74(5): 843-846.

Mirjana, V., Steven, D., & Zang, E. (2010). Doses of nicotine and lung carcinogens delivered to cigarette smokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute (Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 92, 106-111.

Hookah smoking: A growing threat to public health. (n.d.). American Lung Association. Retrieved from http://www.lung.org/stop-smoking/tobacco-control-advocacy/reports-resources/cessation-economic-benefits/reports/hookah-policy-brief.pdf

Aslam, H. M., Saleem, S., German, S. & Qureshi, W. A. (2014). Harmful effects of shisha: Literature review. International Archives of Medicine. Retrieved from http://www.intarchmed.com/content/pdf/1755-7682-7-16.pdf

Eissenberg, T., (2013). Tobacco Smoking Using a Waterpipe (Hookah): What You Need to

Know. AANA Journal. 81(4), p308-313.

Ondov, B. & Seltzer, J. (2010). Hookah smoking: Healthy option or just as harmful? TSHP. Retrieved from https://www.tshp.org/uploads/2/9/1/1/2911890/hookah.pdf

Morris, D. S., Fiala, S. C., & Pawlak, R. (2012). Opportunities for policy interventions to reduce youth hookah smoking in the United States. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2012/12_0082.htm

Rahman, S., Chang, L., Hadgu, S., Salinas-Miranda, A., & Corvin, J. (2012). Prevalence, knowledge, and practices of hookah smoking among university students, Florida, 2012. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2014/14_0099.htm

Selim, B. G., Fouad, H., & Ezzat, S. (2013). Impact of shisha smoking on the extent of coronary artery disease in patients referred for coronary angiography. Retrieved from http://www.anakarder.com/sayilar/95/buyuk/647-654.pdf

Griffiths, M., Harmon, T., Gilly, M. (2011). Hubble Bubble Trouble: The Need for Education About and Regulation of Hookah Smoking. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 30(1), p119-132.

Ray, C. (2009). The hookah – the Indian waterpipe. Current Science. 96(10). P1319-

P1323.

Sterling, K., & Mermelstein, R. (2011). Examining hookah smoking among a cohort of

adolescent ever smokers. The Society For Research On Nicotine And Tobacco. 13(12).

Doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr146.



Topic: Global Economics on International Trade

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Date: Free trade theory and the protectionist theory

Back in the 1840s, Britain having innovated the industrial revolution and acquired absolute cost advantages, decided that policies of free, not protection, would better serve national interests. This is because Britain enjoyed broad industrial supremacy, and hence there was no longer the need to protect the economy from foreign manufacturing, but to rather open more global markets for expanding British industrial production. This was much of the beginnings of the practice of free trade where Adam Smith was widely credited with pioneering economic trade in support of the free trade, as well as his documentation of free trade policies (Lovett, Brinkman, & Eckes, 2004).

Adam Smith’s was for the idea that free trade should prevail as well as the notions that were backing nation building policies in the support of national defence being more important than opulence. The act of navigation and the wisest of commercial regulations also made concessions to the mercantalistic policy of regulation of foreign trade. In the 1770s, Smith wrote the wealth of nations in the wide spread of mercantilism and his advocacy of free trade was supported by the comparative cost theory and the cloth/wine arguments served as the foundation for what later came to be called the pure theory of trade. This theory has then made a turn to support the free trade theory and both Britain and the Unites States embarked upon policies allowing the extreme of one way or unilateral free trade.

According to Dunkey (2003), free trade economists often describe the goal of globalization as deep integration or the convergence of nations’ fundamental economic structures and policy systems, extending far beyond trade or strictly economic criteria. At the start of the twenty-first century, Americans deviated from living in a national market that was depending on its own resources. The American economy was isolated from the rest of the world by border restrictions and natural barriers, such as time, distance and lack of information. Decades of trade liberalization along with innovations in telecommunication and transportation, had integrated global markets – and exposed workers in high income countries to the pressures of global competition.

The superiority of an international trading system characterized by greater multilateralism and international specialization over a trading system based on protectionism, bilateralism and a division of the world into major trading blocs is by no means as clear cut today as it was a decade ago. This can be attributed to the many of the new non-tariff barriers considered as part of the arsenal of policies that a nation believes to be necessary in order to achieve some important domestic objectives. The other explanation could be that in recent years, the very theoretical foundation of the modern theory of international trade, which for nearly two centuries has been consistent based on the alleged superiority of free trade over systems based on trade restrictions, is being questioned.

The protectionism theory proposes that an economy formulates necessary protection policies that are intended to help the domestic industry maintain or increase its market share while foreign producers are expected to lose market share and sales revenues. Oddly enough, the record indicates that foreign producers sometimes benefit from certain protectionist policies as in the case of quotas, due to increases in their prices, which may offset the loss in quantity supplied. For a look at the costs of protectionism in the USA, Tarr and Morkre (1984) estimated the annual cost to the US economy to be $12.7 billion from protections on autos, textiles, steel, and sugar. Hickok’s (1985) analysis targeted the effects on consumers at different income brackets and discovered that protections punish low-income consumers much more than upper income consumers where there are trade restraints on clothing, sugar, and autos. These restrictions were found to be equivalent to 23 per cent income tax surcharge for households with low income and 3 per cent for households with high income which brings up the inequality ratios as really high.

The data point to an interesting finding with regard to the relationship between protectionism and employment where in every single case, the society paid a hefty price for each saved job per worker, and in the majority of cases, and the cost was in excess of $100,000 per job. These findings should raise serious doubt about the utility of the argument that protectionism is beneficial for employment as the benefits derived by domestic producers and government, and occasionally, foreign producers as well, constitute the efficiency losses to society when considering the costs they have to endure. These efficiency losses are a result of the interventions imposed by the government. Hence they result of production distortions, reduced consumption, and the many side effects on consumers’ purchasing power, industrial customers, and the added bureaucratic and government expenditures to monitor and enforce the policies which call for more policy formulations.

A similar finding was derived when the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) conducted studies to evaluate the effects of protectionist policies in manufacturing industries in the OECD member countries (OECD, 1985). The key findings of the OECD’s study point to the effects of protectionism as rise in domestic price stifled economic growth and depressed investment, drop in imports is accompanied by drop in exports, jobs saved are offset by job losses in export-oriented industries, overall employment does not increase and the jobs saved are publicized and the jobs lost are not; hence, the public is left with the impression than protectionist policies benefit employment.

Protectionism in developed countries impact developing countries and as realized from the OECD study concludes that reduced imports by developed countries reduce exports by developing countries and their earnings of foreign exchange, which they need in order to finance their external public debt. The multinational financial situation also gets hurt by trade protectionism and the impact of protectionism on developing countries was recently re-affirmed by US Government officials most intimately involved in international trade when six former US trade representatives affirmed that developing countries have benefited significantly with the reductions in protectionism by developed countries.

Further, other studies carried out by scholars clearly show that the costs of trade protectionism exceed the benefits and while domestic producers and possibly their workers may gain for a while, consumers and society lose. Inefficiencies inflict the entire economy and hamper growth, investment, employment, and ultimately even government revenues.

Influence of Global economics at Micro and Macro levels in Decision Making

Despite improved global financial conditions and reduced short-term risks, the world economy continues to expand at a subdued pace. There has been a marked downturn over the past two years and a review of the same has shown inflation has had a significant influence in the developing nations. On the other hand, global economic activity has been expected to slowly start rising towards the end of 2013 and 2014 which can be attained based on the back of accommodative and sound monetary policies in developed and developing economies globally. Most world regions that were highly affected by the economic crash are likely to see a slow upward growth in activity where growth will continue to be below potential and employment gains, especially in developed economies, which will remain weak at best.

There are short-term risks associated with the situation in the euro area as well as the changes in the dollar rates in buying and selling among the international firms where this gives the impression of a call for fiscal adjustments in the United States and the economic slowdown in large developing countries to restore the necessary balance. At the same time, new medium-term risks have emerged, including possible adverse effects of unconventional monetary measures in developed economies on global financial stability and hence bringing about high inflation and unemployment rates. These risks have the potential to once again derail the feeble recovery of the world economy and hence the main priority for policy makers worldwide should therefore be to support a robust and balanced global recovery, with a focus on promoting job creation.

The enhancement of International policy coordination needs to be enhanced to mitigate negative policy spill-overs, curb protectionism, promote cooperation in reforming the international financial system, and ensure sufficient resource flows to developing economies, and in particular the least developed countries of Asia and Africa.

Theory of two level games in decision making

The politics of many international negotiations can usefully be conceived as a two-level game where at the national level, domestic groups pursue their interests by pressuring the government to adopt favorable policies, and politicians seek power by constructing coalitions among those groups. Though economies are operating at the international level, national governments have the priority of maximizing their own ability to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments at the cost of their economies. Neither of the two games can be ignored by central decision-makers, so long as their countries remain interdependent, while at the same time trying to maintain their sovereignty

The theory proposes that there be a platform for each of the political leaders with their diplomats and international advisors negotiating against a number of foreign counterparts. Around the domestic table behind him sit party and parliamentary figures, spokespersons for domestic agencies, representatives of key interest groups, and the leader’s own political advisors to give the necessary support and enable wise decision making consultatively.

There are powerful incentives for steadiness between the two games where economic players will tolerate some differences in rhetoric between the two games, but in the end either energy prices rise or they don’t. On occasion, however, clever players will spot a move on one board that will trigger realignments on other boards, enabling them to achieve otherwise unattainable objectives that are beneficial to their own team and hence their home economy

Benefits of Adjusting International trade Restrictions

The 2008 index of Economic Freedom published by the Heritage Foundation ranks the USA as the fifth freest economy in the world; a dimension in the index showing the extent to which international trade is free of government interference. USA can be regarded as a world leader when it comes to facilitating free trade but it is still not top ranking. For the purposes of the promotion of political cooperation and stability within its states, USA made free trade part of its foreign policies after WWII.

However, the commitment to international trade by the US government has seen a pattern of repeated forms of protectionism in free trade that has had negative effects both domestically as well as with the international community. Protectionist sentiments in the USA seem to be propagated again and this is manifested by the many bills before the Congress that are viewed in a way to reduce laissez faire. The Congress is looking to curtail free trade in different industries and with different countries and the stalling debate and ratification of free trade agreements (FTAs) that the administration had laboriously negotiated with key trade partners in Latin America and Asia is a sign.

Furthermore, Congress is putting the final touches on a $300 billion farm bill that is proving to be the “costliest in history” and that WTO trade partners consider the main obstacle to completing the Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations. All this while the rest of the world is moving forward and negotiating FTAs with or without the USA. There are currently 380 FTAs worldwide and the USA is a member of only about ten and this is reason for concern considering that about half world trade takes place within FTAs (Trading Without America, 2007). Nations of the world have been trading in goods and services with each other since the dawn of history; in modern times, and especially since the establishment of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), multilateral trade has flourished and produced economic prosperity and political stability among trading partners.

The end result of the trade has seen the interest of many countries wanting to be a part of the trading nations as they are beneficial to only involved economies. They thus intend to petition for membership in international trading blocs having the considered the benefits against the level of control that they are subjecting themselves to the rules developed by foreign nations governing the operations of international trade. There are some considerations where trade has not been deprived of indescribable outcomes, inadequate cooperation with regard to certain protected industries, and painful socio-economic dislocations within domestic economies, yet, in spite of these shortcomings, trade has advanced steadily. At times the trade has advanced at a higher pace than expected and hence created an awesome outcome where the growth of world trade outpaced the growth of world economy.

Growth in trade and economic output proliferated to developing countries whose economies actually grew faster than the developed countries strengthening investor confidence, elevating stock market values to historic levels, and lowering the spread in interest margins between emerging market bonds and those of developed countries. Foreign direct investment capital flows reached $1.23 trillion in 2006, the second highest ever, and global liquidity increased foreign exchange reserves and enabled governments to expedite public debt re-payments. Recent data show that the situation in the USA is equally attractive where in 2007, US exports reached a record $1.6 trillion. This is up 12.6 per cent from 2006 and the 2008 numbers are equally impressive with a third of agriculture output and 20 per cent of manufactures exported internationally due to the economy’s competitive advantage.

References

Dunkley, G. (2003). Free trade: Myth, reality, and alternatives. London: Zed Books

Hickok, S. (1985). The consumer cost of US trade restraints. Quarterly Review, Federal

Reserve Bank of New York. New York, NY, pp. 1-12.

Lovett, W. A., Brinkman, R. L., & Eckes, A. E. (2004). U.S. trade policy: History, theory,

and the WTO. Armonk, NY

OECD (1985). Costs and Benefits of Protection, Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development. Paris.

Tarr, D.G. and Morkre, M.E. (1984). Aggregate costs to the United States of tariffs and

quotas on imports: General tariff cuts and removal of quotas on automobiles, steel,

sugar, and textiles. Bureau of Economics Staff Report to the Federal Trade

Commission. FederalTrade Commission, Washington DC.

Trading Without America (2007). Review and outlook. Wall Street Journal. August 7, p. A10

Homelessness and the costs of the unexpected expense

Homelessness is a problem, which affects every society. It should not be ignored as its effects are detrimental. Tragedy can occur at any time and people need to be prepared for it. Homelessness is considered as being an expense which is unexpected. There have been many cases of unemployment as this is a challenge, which needs to be addressed. Most jobs, which exist, are for unskilled people, as well as being low-wage and people are struggling to meet their needs. In the United States, the numbers of people who are working are 6% and are below the line of poverty. Also, working poor people are estimated to be at 20%. This means that they are likely to become homeless as they are economically fragile. Households are at risk of being crippled due to unexpected expenses, which have not been planned for and also earning mere incomes. There are certain indicators that make people who are poor, prone to homelessness. The burden of housing has become severe; this means that more than half of people’s income is used in paying for housing. In turn, people are living in situations, which are doubled up, and this is due to economic hardships. Poor people, who are working, often tend to work longer hours as well as in occupations, which are volatile.

Solving the problem of homelessness is expensive compared to how it affects society. In order to solve this problem, the economy would be affected due to the amount of money being used. High costs are incurred and inefficiency when public services are accessed by homeless people. Cost saving is bound to occur is homelessness is prevented. This will occur if permanent housing is available to homeless people. The homeless people’s lives will also improve if they obtain access to housing. A lot of spending will have to occur if homelessness will be controlled. Money is being spent on ensuring that the homeless are provided with temporary accommodation and hostel facilities. Also, it seeks to provide them with mental health and physical services. Other times, they are given support to ensure that they maintain tenancies and live independently. There are no major advancements in homelessness cost economic measurement. This is because the methodology is not advanced as compared to other sectors. Agency accounts analysis has to occur if costs are to be known. It is always good to prepare for disasters such as homelessness.

Most people who abuse substances are prone to homelessness. The help they need is to reduce their addiction to substance use as it will ensure that homelessness does not occur. Strategies have been set up, which fight homelessness, an example of a report on shelter, is in the year 2010. It focuses on prevention services and housing options in regards to costs incurred. In the year 2007, the Annex4 was published and concerns matters prevention strategies of homelessness. Homelessness costs are made known and savings, which can occur, if the report is implemented. Everyone is at risk of being homeless, thus people should always be prepared by having money saved for use in the future.

Apart from financial aspects of homelessness, it is associated with sleeping problems, strained relationships, depression and anxiety. This means that homeless people face many problems, which in turn, disrupts their lives quality. More should be done by people and governments to ensure that homelessness is eradicated. In turn, society will improve and people will benefit greatly. In conclusion, people should be prepared for unexpected expenses so that they can live their lives normally without any disruptions.

Free will vs. Determinism

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Introduction

Free will is the ability of a person to decide and behave independently without any external influence. In this case decision making is only influenced by the will of a person. The humanistic approach holds that free will determines human behavior through the life of a person. On the other hand, determinism is the common believe that human behavior is determined by past events and external forces. Schnauder (2007) asserts that this phenomenon holds that human behavior is determined by childhood events and that the free will practiced in adulthood is illusory. Free will is believed to be a gift from God .Free will is crucial in a society especially the legal system. Free will helps the jury determine pre-meditation hence free will of commission of a crime by a person. This is the reason for acquitting incapacitated people from charges leveled against them. The other aspect is that there is a controversy concerning man’s pre-determination to act in a particular manner. God is sovereign and supreme hence this view can be held to be true ( HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Richard+Langdon+Franklin%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CEQQ9AgwBA&biw=1280&bih=697” Franklin, 2007). However, a discussion outside a theologian confinement, will establishment that man has free will and can make personal goals in a bid to attain self-actualization in life. Philosophy has a correlation to man’s feelings, perceptions, responsibilities and thought processes. In this regard, man must always understand himself before influencing the environment around him.

Augustine’s view

Augustine advocates for both free will and determinism as determinants of human behaviour. This owes to the fact of foreknowledge of god pertaining the fall of man. This compelled Augustine to devise an empirical hypothesis and biblical defence of free will. He argues that there is compatibility between free will and the sovereignty of God. Campbell, ‎ Rourk, and ‎ Shier (2010) posit that free will for the human beings is subject to the human experiences. According to him, man has free will because an upright man cannot do right things if he or she is not willing to act rightly.in addition, god’s oracles dictate that man must act out of free will to obey god.in this regard, god will reward the righteous according to their good deeds and the evil according to their evil deeds. According to Pereboom (2009), man’s free will and God’s sovereignty in determinism are interlinked. Augustine argues that disagreement between the believers and non-believers can be resolved by adherence to the principle of reason. This is because reason provides sufficient evidence and rationality in the physical world. He believes that any philosopher of religion should not have a neutral position on the issues bordering Christianity. According to HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Perry+D.+Westbrook%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CFIQ9AgwBw&biw=1280&bih=697” Westbrook (2012), Christian principles ought to be applied in a religious controversy. Moreover, theistic belief does not need to be supported by substantial evidence in order for it to be true. Augustine argues that the traditional views on the existence of God were not fallacious. In addition, he claims that there are no good and bad theistic arguments with regard to the sovereignty of God. HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22John+Lemos%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CFYQ9AgwCA&biw=1280&bih=697” Lemos (2013) posits that the determinist view guarantees rationality and objectivity in a religious philosophical work. Augustine does not support this school of thought. He does not believe that every non-believer has actual knowledge of God. However, he argues that belief in God is acquired only in specific circumstances. Augustine’s ecstasy is based on the intellect and neutrality with regard to the determinism and free will and the Christian apologetic aspect. He has also reservations are based on his skepticism of determinism proponents and his view that natural theology is superfluous.

Sigmund Freud

According to Freud, individual thought process is usually unconscious .In this regard, he believes that the behavior of a person is as a result of interaction between the ego and the superego of a person and the unconscious part of psyche of a person. According to Berofsky (2012), Freud psychosocial development enhances development of purpose and personality of a child .It encompasses the development of independency, sense of humor; sense of identity the sense of fortitude and the ways through which these needs are met in interactions with other people. Children of the three to four years of age have acquired a fairly strong cognitive grasp of what constitutes the aspect of emotions. In addition, they have the ability to distinguish negligible differences in different feelings like irritable versus angry, gloomy versus annoyed. They must struggle with uncertainty, and indecisiveness. This is the eventuality regardless of possession of the ability to think in the abstract and engage in metacognition which is the thinking about their thought processes. Feelings may be quite intense and confusing for these children.

HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Gregg+D.+Caruso%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CDkQ9AgwAg&biw=1280&bih=697” Caruso (2012) conjectures that a human being is just an agent through which unconscious forces of the mind act. They also share on the socio-cultural influence on a person’s character. This was developed in negating Freud’s position, which underestimated the impact of socio-cultural effect on a person’s character. Freud is of the view that external forces influence person’s response to the world. Freud claims that human freedom does not need be influenced by Biblical Christian oracles but on human liberty and free will .He believes in human freedom and God’s sovereignty. His predecessors argue that human freedom and divine sovereignty are guided by Biblical principles ( HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22John+Lemos%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CFYQ9AgwCA&biw=1280&bih=697” Lemos , 2013) .Freud advocates for determinism and argues that human behavior is determined by the perfect will of God. In this regard, he establishes a relationship between metaphysics and the study of epistemology. This implies that there should be a correlation between knowledge and reality. According to Berofsky (2012), Freud interlinks human behavior to scientific discoveries and knowledge of existence of God, the Almighty. In addition, he argues that the study of being results to dismissal of the study of knowledge given that human behavior must be explained by theoretical knowledge. He employs analytical skills and dexterity in his arguments, which commands more appeal.

Personal opinion

My view is that individuals usually make independent decisions out of free will hence the need to embrace the free will as a determinant of human behavior. However, the external forces are equally ital. in the many decisions arrived at, by man. In fact, most decisions and behaviors exhibited by man are as a result of past experience. For instance, the legal decisions made in the modern times are subject to precedents made many years ago. This reveals that the deterministic view is indispensable in human life. In addition, the psychodynamic theory also puts into perspective the aspect of determinism. This theory holds that human behavior is pegged upon the childhood experiences of a child. Therefore, there is need to incorporate both perspectives in human behavior because both views perfectly apply in determination of human behavior and future decisions .decision making can be subjectively or independently made by a person. Some decisions are based upon past events or some external aspects .For instance, when we are born we have a canvas which has a certain design on it which cannot be changed. This makes the human being determined and we have the 3 basic colors of ,which we can chose to color a painting as we choose out of our freewill .moreover, we can mix the colors to have more colors through our own volition. These decisions perfectly belong to the determinism theory. However, the decisions made out of a person’s own judgment independent of past events or external factors. This may be almost impossible because a decision must be based upon a reason, which apparently must involve past events or some internal or external aspect.

Conclusion

All the views indicate that human beings being and behavior is influenced by both determinism and free will hence an interactionist approach is to be applied in determining the human behavior. Although both views have weaknesses it is apparent that both apply in the human behavior. The aspect of moral accountability does not augur well with the determinism theory given that the determinism theory holds that a human being’s decision making is subject to external forces and natural laws. Free will is a vital aspect of a legal system hence the determinism view does not count given that legal cases involve the free will of the accused person. The reason for contradiction of either of the views is that whereas the universe is presumed to be deterministic in nature human beings are not deterministic .This owes to the fact that human beings can freely decide and make informed decisions.

References

Schnauder. L. (2007). HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=g_rZp_XYO3sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAw” Moral Responsibility: Beyond Free Will and Determinism. Cornell

University Press. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=g_rZp_XYO3sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdH” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=g_rZp_XYO3sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdH

HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Richard+Langdon+Franklin%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CEQQ9AgwBA&biw=1280&bih=697” Franklin.R.L. (2007).  HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=51wIAQAAIAAJ&q=free+will+VS.+Determinism&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBA” Freewill and determinism: a study of rival conceptions of man

. Oxford, Oxford Univ. Press. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=51wIAQAAIAAJ&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlW” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=51wIAQAAIAAJ&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlW

Campbell.J.K., ‎ Rourke.M, and ‎ Shier .D.(2010). HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=zydkUGosAJcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBQ” Freedom and Determinism. Hoboken, N.J.,

John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=zydkUGosAJcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdH” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=zydkUGosAJcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdH

Pereboom.D. (2009).  HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=Evjb7LIrgCAC&pg=PA213&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg” Free Will (Second Edition).Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=Evjb7LIrgCAC&pg=PA213&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YG” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=Evjb7LIrgCAC&pg=PA213&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YG

HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Perry+D.+Westbrook%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CFIQ9AgwBw&biw=1280&bih=697” Westbrook.P.D. (2012).  HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=U1geAAAAMAAJ&q=free+will+VS.+Determinism&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBw” Free will and determinism in American literature Basingstoke,

Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=U1geAAAAMAAJ&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Pl” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=U1geAAAAMAAJ&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Pl

HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22John+Lemos%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CFYQ9AgwCA&biw=1280&bih=697” Lemos.J. (2013).  HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=29XqeQ0kQpYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCA” Freedom, Responsibility, and Determinism: A Philosophical

approach. Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=29XqeQ0kQpYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4Bd” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=29XqeQ0kQpYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4Bd

Berofsky.B. (2012).  HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=J1Gd8OIEowAC&q=free+will+VS.+Determinism&dq=free+will+VS.+Determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=19eDUq3rG8WJtAah4oDQDw&ved=0CFoQ6AEwCQ” Free will and determinism. Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Pub. Retrieved

from

HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=J1Gd8OIEowAC&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlW” http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=J1Gd8OIEowAC&q=free+will+vs.+determinism&dq=free+will+vs.+determinism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PlW

HYPERLINK “https://www.google.co.ke/search?client=firefox-beta&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Gregg+D.+Caruso%22&sa=X&ei=PlWEUqG4BdHMtAb8-YGwCw&ved=0CDkQ9AgwAg&biw=1280&bih=697” Caruso.D. (2012). Free Will and Consciousness: A Determinist Account of human

existence. Los Angeles, SAGE. Retrieved from

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Homelessness In America

Homelessness in America is an issue of concern since it has affected a vast population. Military veterans, children, individuals fleeing domestic violence, mentally ill and families with children constitute the homeless in America. This implies that homelessness is an issue that affects different individuals (Bringle, 2011). Different factors have contributed to homelessness in America, which include political factors, social and medical factors, and economic factors. Economic factors contribute immensely to the situation of homelessness in America; such factors include low incomes, lack of affordable medical care and lack of affordable housing (Hill & Stamey, 1990). Different interventions from the state and private entities have been formulated in an attempt to respond to the issue of homelessness. For instance, different laws and programs have been formulated and implemented in order to provide a solution to the homelessness issue. These programs and laws has made the number of homeless individuals to decline. An increase in the number of such laws and programs will help in mitigating the number of homeless individuals further. Thirty years from now, America’s next generation will view today’s responses to homelessness as just.

There are various responsive programs that tend to alleviate the problem of homelessness in America. One of the programs is the Homeless Veterans Reintegration Program (HVRP). This program assists veterans that experience homelessness in gaining meaningful employment and increasing the efficiency of cooperation across all programs that serve veterans experiencing homelessness (Dreier & Appelbaum, 1991). This program is the only program, which works specifically on issues relating to employment of veterans that experience the problem of homelessness while utilizing a client-focused case management model in connecting veterans with the other social benefits and services (Bringle, 2011). The service providers implement the following grant funded activities: career counseling, job placement, workshops and job training among others. Different case managers work with veterans in ensuring that they access the full spectrum of majority benefits and education opportunities available to the veterans from state, federal and local sources.

This program follows virtue ethics since it considers doing rightful things to the veterans; it concentrates more on the welfare of homeless veterans in obtaining employment, which is considered as one of the ways through which homeless individuals can get income that can assist them in becoming independent in obtaining basic wants, thus helps in mitigating the number of homeless veterans. Besides, this program follows retributive justice since it focuses on providing what homeless individuals deserve. Funds are usually distributed to eligible veterans by the Veterans Employment and Training Services office (McNamara, 2008). This program has led to a reduction in the number of homeless individuals in America through helping homeless veterans to acquire employment; the acquisition of employment by the homeless veterans contributes a lot to the financial strength of the homeless veterans. As a result of the homeless veterans becoming employed, they become capacitated to afford accommodation. Therefore, the HVRP has led to the reduction of the homeless individuals (Dreier & Appelbaum, 1991). The HVRP is a just program since it provides employment services to homeless veterans that deserve assistance. The distribution of education and benefit opportunities is available to all the homeless veterans facing employment issues.

Family Violence Prevention and Services Act (FVPSA) is another program that responds to the problem of homelessness in America. The FVPSA provides the chief federal funding stream, which is dedicated to the support of urgent shelter and supportive services to victims of family violence, domestic violence, and dating violence. Apart from providing support to these victims, FVPSA also offers support to dependents of these victims. Domestic violence is deemed to create vulnerability to homelessness for children and women having limited economic resources. Amid mothers having children that experience homelessness, above 80% have experienced domestic violence previously. Domestic violence entails the exertion of financial control that leaves victims with few resources and poor credit. Finding affordable, safe housing is an immense obstacle that women who experience domestic violence face. However, with the intervention of FVPSA, domestic violence women with their children are able to have safe and affordable housing. FVPSA support grants to territories, states, domestic violence coalitions and tribes.

Through the state and territorial grants, domestic violence coalition grants, and tribal grants, the FVPSA make it feasible to reach the target groups. The three grants have varied appropriations, which make it effective in distributing resources to the target groups. The target groups of the FVPSA are former and current domestic victims together with their dependents, victims in need of technical assistance, and the entire community that deserve education and awareness regarding domestic violence and the related issues (Quigley et al, 2001). The FVPSA follows virtue ethics and retributive justice since it focuses on the needs of individuals and concentrate on doing the rightful thing rather than doing wrong. Through providing education on awareness of domestic violence and providing support to the domestic violence victims and their dependents is a rightful action, which FVPSA provides. The services provided by the FVPSA are just since it does not concentrate on providing its services to one area or region, but it is diverse. Besides, the target group does not only comprise of the current domestic violence victims, but also provides support to former victims and dependents of domestic violence victims. In addition, the FVPSA is just because it focuses on benefiting the entire community rather than a given region or tribe. One of the consequences of this response is the creation of a well educated community regarding domestic violence and associated issues through the response’s action of creating domestic violence awareness. Another consequence of this response is the mitigation of homeless domestic violence victims and their dependents through the support services that the response provides.

Another response to the homelessness problem is Grants for the Benefit of Homeless Individuals (GBHI) program. This program enables communities to achieve the expansion and strengthening their treatment services for individuals experiencing homelessness and who also have mental illness, substance abuse disorders, or both. This response supports programs such as mental health services, substance abuse treatment, wraparound services, outreach services, staff training, screening services, educational services, job training, and relevant housing services. Affordable, permanent housing that is associated with health, employment, mental health and other supportive services provide consumers with a long term community based housing option. Such housing approach combines housing support and intensive personalized support services to the chronically homeless victims having substance use disorders and mental disorders. The grants provided by this response fund programs, which assist in addressing the complex health requirements of the chronically homeless population. From the inception of this response program, approximately 43,819 individuals have obtained grant-supported services. Thus, reducing the number of homeless individuals. Under this response program, supportive housing has been defined to be a housing which is permanent, affordable and associated with health, employment, mental health and other supportive services, which provide a consumer with a long term community based housing option. This program targets homeless individuals having substance abuse and mental health disorders. The GBHI program follows virtue ethics since it concentrates on the needs of the individuals with chronic homelessness issues with mental and substance abuse disorders. The response also follows retributive justice because chronically homeless individuals receive support services that they deserve.

This response program is just since it does not only consider providing housing services, but focuses on providing supportive housing that combines the services of employment, health, housing and other relevant issues, which when combined gives a person a long lasting solution to homelessness. Besides, this response program is just because it does not consider giving a temporary solution to the problem of chronic homelessness, but offers a permanent solution to the problem. In addition, the distribution of resources is through nonprofit entities, which presents a fair way of distributing funds. The GBHI program leads to a reduction in the number of individuals facing the problem of chronic homelessness. In addition, this response program leads to strengthening of individuals through employment, training, housing, and health support through the different programs that it offers. Furthermore, this response program leads to a reduction of the number of individuals engaging in substance abuse due to its education and awareness program to individuals abusing or intending to abuse substances.

Other than the above responses to the problem of homelessness, there is also another response which is Services in Supportive Housing (SSH). This program was developed in order to assist in preventing or mitigating chronic homelessness through funding services for persons and families that experience homelessness and living with substance or mental disorder. The program addresses the need of having treatment and provision of services to families and individuals. This program focuses its attention on service provision in a participant’s housing facility; this is different to different community-level settings. Because of this, special attention is paid on the quality and quantity of service provided, which seek in enhancing the functioning level and extended housing stability for participants. Evidence based practices are required by this program so as to ensure effectiveness. Besides, the program’s grantees are also required to have permanent housing components and funded by other resources. Services, which are supported under this program entails intensive case management, substance abuse and mental health treatment, outreach and engagement, and help in obtaining benefits. However, the program is not limited to the above services.

The chief target group of this response program entails individuals experiencing chronic homelessness problems and substance abuse and mental disorders. The funding of this program is through the Department of Health and Human Services’ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). This program concentrates on doing the rightful thing to the homeless individuals, who have a mental or substance abuse disorder. Therefore, the response program follows virtue ethics. The provision of services is not in regard to a certain region or individual, which indicates that the response program is just. Besides, the response program is just because it involves nonprofit entities in the distribution of resources. Furthermore, the program focuses on offering chronic homeless individuals what they require most; therefore, it follows retributive justice. This response program leads to a reduction in the number of individuals that have chronic homelessness. Also, this response program leads to mitigation in the number of persons engaging in substance abuse.

In addition, responses to the problem of homelessness have been through development of laws. For example, the development of Homeless Education Assistance Improvement Act aimed at ensuring that homeless children and the youths become protected and educated. According to this Act, every school district should have a liaison officer that looks at the needs of the homeless students. This Act follows retributive justice since homeless children and youths are offered support to education and housing, which is a requirement that they deserve to have. Besides, the law follows virtue ethics since it concentrates on dealing with individual problems of homeless children and youths. In distributing the resources, the law provides an effective guide, which depicts that the law is just. In addition, the law is just since it ensures that homeless youths and children get an opportunity to learn and have proper housing. These are basic wants, which homeless children and youths may not get; however, because of this law, children and youths have an access to proper housing and education. This response has led to a decline in the number of homeless children and youths in America. The response has also increased the number of homeless children and youths that receive education and become independent.

Furthermore, another response entails Homelessness Prevention and Rapid Rehousing Program (HPRP). This program offers homelessness prevention help to households that could become homeless, and offers rapid re-housing help to individuals that are homeless as defined under the Homeless Assistance Act. By the conclusion of 30th September 2012, the program had prevented approximately 1.3 million individuals from becoming categorized as homeless through the programs funding. The grantees for this program are usually eligible in different activities, which include administrative costs, data collection and evaluation, housing relocation and stabilization services, and financial assistance. This response program follows virtue ethics since it concentrates on doing the rightful thing of supporting the homeless individuals; therefore, it concentrates on solving problems affecting homeless individuals. Besides, this response follows retributive justice since it focuses on providing support to homeless individuals based on what they deserve. The response is just because it does not seek to favor a certain group or certain individuals, but seeks to cater for the homeless individuals without regard to what makes individuals become homeless. This response program has led to a reduction in the homeless individuals. Besides, this response program has led to preventing individuals from becoming homeless.

Conclusion

Homelessness is a major problem facing Americans. Poverty emerges as the dominating factor in leading to homelessness. In order to alleviate the number of individuals experiencing homelessness, different state and private actors must recognize that homelessness is an issue that requires different interventions which can be through the creation of laws, policies and programs that focus on alleviating the problem (Dreier & Appelbaum, 1991). The existing interventions have made an attempt to mitigate the problem, but there is a need to come up with other responses that will help in alleviating the problem further. Thirty years from now, the American generation that will follow will view the current responses as just since they involve the guidance of laws in their implementation and are not skewed.

References

Bringle, J. (2011). Homelessness in America today. New York, NY: Rosen Pub.

Dreier, P. & Appelbaum, R. (1991). American Nightmare: Homelessness. Vol. 34 (2), pp. 46-52.

Hill, P. R. & Stamey, M. (1990). Journal of Consumer Research: The Homeless in America: An Examination of Possessions and Consumption Behaviors. Vol. 17 (3), pp. 303-321.

Kryder-Coe, J. H., Salamon, L. M., Molnar, J. M., & Johns Hopkins Institute for Policy Studies. (1991). Homeless children and youth: A new American dilemma. New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A: Transaction Publishers.

McNamara, R. H. (2008). Homelessness in America. Westport, Conn: Praeger.

National Alliance to End Homelessness (n.d). Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.endhomelessness.org/” http://www.endhomelessness.org/.

National Healthcare for the Homeless Council. (2011). Criminal justice, homelessness & health.

Quigley, M.J., Raphael, S. & Smolensky, E. (2001). Homeless in America, Homeless in California. Vol. 83 (1), pp. 37-51.

HLS Response And Recovery

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc377539098” Factors guiding response PAGEREF _Toc377539098 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377539099” Decision making in cases of incomplete or misleading information PAGEREF _Toc377539099 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377539100” Analysis frameworks for structured situation analysis and risk assessment PAGEREF _Toc377539100 h 2

Factors guiding responseIn a rescue operation response following a disastrous event, the basic guiding factors are determined by the nature of the disaster in line with the general security and response preparedness on the ground. The realization that human effort may only take care of certain emergency situations has made it necessary for the Department of Homeland Security to formulate policies that will enable emergencies bearable to some extent. Emergency preparedness is a major factor that guides the rest of the required procedures to a significant extent. For instance, how well response and recovery facilities are upgraded as well as the communication structure in the event of an emergency determines success of the appropriate operations (White House, n.d). Presence of a clearly laid strategy and recovery plan facilitate the rolling out of assistance in cases of emergencies. Case dependent factors are beyond human control but may be anticipated such as weather and terrain of the disaster location.

Decision making in cases of incomplete or misleading informationAccording to Cooper (2005, p225), information should be solicited from as broad scope of sources as possible. An allowance of misleading information is created and the reliance on every piece of information done after scrutiny has been done to create a sensible lead to rescue. The author prescribes certain guidelines that should be followed in the debriefing procedure that ought to extract useful and accurate information from the available sources. In all cases, a logical comparison of pieces of information should be in existence to avoid errors.

Analysis frameworks for structured situation analysis and risk assessmentFrameworks are designed from risk management and emergency preparedness approaches that assist in setting up an integrated system. Every component of risk area is considered and effective responses deliberated from a structured approach under the framework.

Under risk assessment frameworks, risks are identified and a thorough analysis carried out to determine the level of threat that they pose to security (Stellman, 1998). The framework then becomes useful in the establishment of the appropriate procedures to be undertaken in the event the risks blow up into a disaster.

References

White House (n.d) “Homeland Security,” Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/homeland-security/” http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/homeland-security/

Stellman, J. M. (1998) Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, Industries and Occupations, Geneva, Switzerland: International Labor Organization

Cooper, D. C. (2005) Fundamentals of search and rescue. HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury,_Massachusetts” Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning