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Explanatory Response

In this excerpt there is a conversation going on between Tio Angel, Ama, and Aunt Mercy (Viramontes 166). There is also Turtle in the room, who is a passive participant in the conversation. Turtle comments on few things as well as ask a few questions although he seems to be the main subject of discussion. The whereabouts of the narrator is not clear, although he seem to be in the same room where he observes and reports what is going on. In the conversation there are several interesting quotes that indicate the gravity of their conversation.

The first quote is “where’s your other half?” (Viramontes 167) a question asked to Turtle by Tio. It indicates that Turtle is in a romantic relationship or engagement with someone and Tio is asking the question to know about his whereabouts and to provoke more conversation about him. However, Turtle is not interested in a conversation about her fiancée and passively shrugs of the conversation.

The second quote is Aunt Mercy’s question. She asks “What is with the shaved Head?” (Viramontes 167) referring to Turtles shaved head. When Turtles asks to be told if there is anything wrong with it her Aunt mercy reminds her of Angel baby who had a shaved head, drunk alcohol just like Turtle and ended up killing her fiancée.

These quotes are an indication that Aunt Mercy is concerned with the Change in Turtle and perceives it a change towards becoming murderous. This notion is confirmed by another quote, answere by Aunt Mercy to Turtles questioning of her relating of Angele baby/malfora to her. Aunty mercy states “Bottom-line is maflora shaved her head. That was the start of going bad” (Viramontes 167). This is an indication that Aunty believes the Turtle might kill her fiancée. This bottom line her aunty draws leaves her feeling sad and empty (Viramontes 168).

Work Cited

Viramontes, Helena, M. “Their Dogs Came With Them”

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Explication to “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou

Still I Rise is a poem that puts of people who never seem to be happy by the success of others. They spend their whole time peddling lies, being bitter and showing upset to someone’s success. The only time when they seem to be happy is when they see others bowed head with brokenness. From the poem, the speaker looks at such people and says that they cannot prevent her from rising. The speaker points at several scenarios in which these people are offended by the speaker. She uses words such as Sexiness, haughtiness, and sassiness. The mood of the poem is colored by the poetic elements that are used in it. They bring out a mood of hope and determination as the speaker narrates that she rises above all odds “just like the moon and the sun”. In this essay I intend to argue how the poetic elements have been used to bring out some of the main themes in the poem.

In the first line of the poem the speaker begins with using a rhetoric line where her enemies may seem to have succeeded in their plot to make her life miserable. She says that “you may write me down in history” (Angelou) which brings the idea of a temporary victory over her enemies. She uses consonance to create an image (Margaret, Mary and Jon) of the weapon upon which her enemies use to try and bring her down. She says in the second line that her enemies use lies coupled with bitter emotion to ensure that she is written down in history. In the third line the speaker uses a metaphor and rhymes with the first line. Both lines have similar meaning where they imply bad actions against the speaker. Symbolism is also used in the third line where dirt represents the idea of killing someone’s reputation by smearing dirt to his/her character. The speaker’s enemies use lies to ensure that her reputation is made unclean. The fourth line is ironical as the speaker uses the situation in which her enemies try to put her into to defeat them. Even though they try and use dirt to spoil her reputation, she uses the same dirt to rise out of the situation. This line also includes a couple of elements such as similes, where the idea of rising is likened to dust that has been disturbed from where it had settled. When dust is blown, it rises into the air. The line also rhymes with the second line but the implications of both are quite opposite.

In the second stanza the speaker starts with a rhetorical question (Gardner) asking her enemies whether her sassiness upsets them. She knows very well that these are her enemies and anything about her upsets them, especially when they see her in happy and mischievous moods. The second line similarly asks a related question to the first one. However in the second line she seems to be seeking for an answer because she fails to understand why all the fuss over her suddenly being in a sassy mood. The line also rhymes with the first one and seems to emphasize on the idea brought out with the first line of the stanza. In the third line, there is both the use of symbolism and simile to bring out the idea of sassiness of the speaker. The oil wells are used to symbolize her achievements and the reason why she is sassy being her achievements. The oil can also be used to symbolize her personal wealth and it could be said she seems to be sassy because she has plenty in her house.

There is a connection between the first and the third stanzas because the general idea of both is to put off the enemies who are standing in her way. The speaker uses several similes to relate her position to similar natural circumstances where the concept of rising above all odds is depicted. She relates to the bodies of the universe such as the moon and the sun since these two are known to be above everything and with their light, everyone can notice these two bodies. The sun and the moon are both a symbol hope because they give out light which enables people to see where they are going. Therefore the speaker likens herself to these bodies because she is the symbol of hope to many.

The fourth stanza begins like the second stanza where it uses a rhetorical question aimed at her enemies. The speaker knows that it is true her enemies want to see her broken, but she still goes ahead to ask them the question “Did you want to see me broken?” (Angelou) The second line has a direct relation to the first, in that it emphasizes on the negative feel that the poem brings out. It also uses alliteration to create this feel and mood. The phrase “Bowed head and lowered” (Angelou) has characteristics of alliteration by the use of the consonant ‘d’ at the end of every word. This poetic style is used to stress the idea of what makes her enemies happy. It has also been used to create a sense of sympathy as the reader goes through it. The reader realizes the extent of the advancements her enemies have made towards her and brings out a sympathetic mood. The third line also stresses on this idea even further because of the simile used to represent the manner in which the speaker’s enemies want to see her like. The last line of the stanza is equally sympathetic in nature because the speaker points out that whenever her enemies make advancement, they cause her to have painful emotional cries.

The mood suddenly changes in the fifth stanza where the speaker resumes to her rhetorical questions by asking an obvious question that she can easily figure out the answer to. She even tries to give a little advice to her enemies by telling them not to “take it awful hard”. The speaker seems to be proud of her achievements and wealth because in the third line of the stanza she categorically expresses this sense of pride when she says that she “laughs out like she has got gold mines” (Angelou). The simile used in the third line creates a mood of happiness and the reader is made to interpret that the speaker is excessively wealthy and that she has achieved a lot in her life such that she likens her achievements to gold mines that she digs everyday in hervx own backyard.

The sixth stanza asserts the feeling of determination in the minds of the readers. There is repeated use of repletion which the speaker uses to make more emphasis on her position. The repletion implies that she (the speaker) will back down or be cowed by the advancements of her enemies. She has chosen to disregard every wicked thing they try and use against her. She also uses irony to explain this point loud and clear to her enemies. For instance in the first line, she says that “you may shoot me” (Angelou), this line is ironical because once she is shot, cut into pieces or killed (as used in the first, second and third lines respectively) then the speaker will cease to exist and lose the opportunity to prove her point to her enemies.

The seventh stanza uses tones to bring out the image of bodily sexiness of the speaker. The speaker once again is rhetorical to her enemies by asking them if her beauty and charm is what offends them. In the previous stanzas it occurred as though the speaker is seeking to find out what exactly makes these unknown people or persons hate her. She seems to wonder whether it is her wealth, her achievements, her moods of happiness or her beauty and sexiness that cause such hatred from her enemies. Then the second line creates a sense of past relationships between the speaker and her enemies. The speaker seems to be in wonder why her enemies are now behaving as though they are surprised that she displays sexiness. She uses symbolism in the third line to illustrate how glittering her dancing style is by likening it to the glitters of a diamond. Her moves make her stand out causing feelings of jealousy from her enemies.

Conclusion

It clearly comes out in the poem that the speaker is not only proud of her position but also uses it to create a hope in many people who are enslaved. In the last stanza of the poem this is depicted clearly with a metaphoric representation of the speaker’s passion and goal in life. She has to struggle past all the odds so that she becomes the dream and the source of hope to many slaves because that is the gift that her ancestors gave to her

Works Cited

Angelou, Maya. “Still I rise.” 1978.

Gardner, Helen. New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250-1950. New York and London:

Oxford University Press, 1972.

Margaret, Ferguson, Jo Salter Mary and Stallworthy Jon, The Norton Anthology of

Poetry. 4. New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1996.

Exploitation Theory of Prejudice

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Introduction

The history of the United States is carved on prejudice and racial discrimination. This is especially considering that a considerable number of blacks or African Americans went to the United States as slaves and never enjoyed some of the rights until they were freed from slavery. In fact, they have had to fight for some rights, decades after being freed from slavery. Studies show that racial discrimination and prejudice is still rampant in the United States despite its stature as a melting pot. It is, therefore, not surprising that varied theories have been coined to explain the occurrence of prejudice.

Prejudice is defined as an individual’s tendency to think negatively about other groups, attach negative emotions to them, as well as prejudge people based on their group memberships (Alibeli & Yaghi, 2012). It is worth noting that prejudice incorporates the affective or emotional aspect, and the cognitive or thinking aspect. While prejudice may be explained through varied theories, exploitation theory comes as the most fitting for the United States.

The exploitation theory explains that prejudice is economically and rationally motivated based on self interests. It underlines the fact that the dominant group is the beneficiary of the prejudice as the vice has its roots on the exploitation of the minority group. In line with this theory, prejudice results from the competition over resources. Scholars have used this theory to explain the United States’ case where they state that, slave-trade was merely another technique for recruiting labor for exploitation of natural resources (Alibeli & Yaghi, 2012). They note that the search for cheap labor resulted in a system of racial insubordination in which the whites were the masters while black Africans became the slaves. This racial prejudice was established as an ideology that would rationalize the subordination of African Americans (Alibeli & Yaghi, 2012). Every time the elites’ high status needs the exploitation and subordination of minority groups, it comes up with ideologies that would explain, rationalize and justify the relevant arrangements. As an example, the South based slave owners would spread and employ anti-Black prejudice so as to justify their exploitation as slaves (Alibeli & Yaghi, 2012).

References

Alibeli, M.A &. Yaghi, A (2012). Theories of Prejudice and Attitudes toward Muslims in the United States. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 1; January 2012

EXPLORATION OF EPISTEMOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL PEACEBUILDING

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Table of Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739900” 1.0 Introduction PAGEREF _Toc40739900 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739901” 2.0 Research Question PAGEREF _Toc40739901 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739902” 3.0 History and Background of International Peacebuilding PAGEREF _Toc40739902 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739903” 4.0 Concept Operationalization: Epistemology of International Peacebuilding PAGEREF _Toc40739903 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739904” 5.0 Critical Assessment of Epistemological Approaches to International Peacebuilding PAGEREF _Toc40739904 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739905” 5.1 The Liberalist Approach PAGEREF _Toc40739905 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739906” 5.2 The Constructivist Approach PAGEREF _Toc40739906 h 10

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739907” 5.3 The Realist Approach PAGEREF _Toc40739907 h 13

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739908” 5.4 The Pragmatist Approach PAGEREF _Toc40739908 h 15

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739909” 6.0 Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc40739909 h 18

HYPERLINK l “_Toc40739910” Reference List PAGEREF _Toc40739910 h 19

1.0 IntroductionIn international relations, the concept of peacebuilding is a distinctively multifaceted and multidimensional long-term process. This process entails reforming social institutions and transforming relationships between and among nation-states towards ending structural violence, war, and destructive conflicts. It is imperative as it emphasises reconciling people and their institutions, restoring social cohesion, and stabilising post-conflict zones (Catholic Relief Service 2018; Dudouet, and Schmelzle, 2010; Ehrhart and Schnabel 2005). So, international peacebuilding is a broad, participatory, people-centred, and relationship-building initiative not confined to post-violence situations. It transcends conflict resolution to include pre-emptive conflict containment and management through violence prevention and a greater focus on determining and curtailing root causes of peace inhibitors (Autesserre 2017). It also includes creating conditions vital for sustainable and enduring global peace and altering potential conflict situations to avert conflict resurgence (Carl and Pospisil 2019; Futamura and Notaras 2011).

With the global peacebuilding field witnessing expanding research interest, several contemporary research methods have been employed in conceptualising this construct. Accordingly, scholarly international peacebuilding research focusing on varied themes studied through diverse qualitative and quantitate research approaches is plenty. Examples of themes and perspectives broadly addressed are mainstream peace sustainability, peacebuilding frameworks and methodologies, policymaking perspectives of global peacebuilding, impacts of internal organisational structures on peacebuilding, and ethnography of peacebuilding (Alliance for Peacebuilding 2019; Gawerc 2006, Miklian and Medina Bickel 2020). However, research aimed at operationalizing the epistemology of various paradigms that form philosophical underpinnings for research methods used in studying international peacebuilding is significantly limited.

Towards addressing this research gap, this essay explores the epistemological merits, concerns, and challenges associated with four international relations theories that form the philosophical keystones that guide different approaches to international peacebuilding research. These theories include pragmatism, constructivism, realism, and liberalism (Ralston 2011). Specifically, my study identifies and provides an account of the strengths and weaknesses of pragmatist, constructivist, liberalist, and realist approaches to researching global peacebuilding. To accomplish this task, I draw on academic literature and theoretical outlooks relating to these paradigms as they apply to international peacebuilding. The paper delineates the research question, presents the concept’s historical background, address concept operationalization, and critical analyses each of these epistemological approaches. It concludes with asserting that the pragmatist approach is the most suitable paradigm in research methods for intellectualising international peacebuilding.

2.0 Research QuestionWhich epistemological paradigm provides the most appropriate philosophical underpinning for research methods that investigate international peacebuilding?

3.0 History and Background of International PeacebuildingThe international peacebuilding concept dates back to the mid-1940 when World War II ended. During this time, European nations, the United States, and their allies began to establish restorative long-term post-conflict initiatives and interventions programmes (Kim and Richmond 2019). These initiatives and programmes focused on reconstructing continents after the war-induced destruction and centred on the doctrines of peacemaking and peacekeeping (Bakker 2010; Dudouet and Schmelzle 2010; Randazzo and Torrent 2020). Examples of these initiatives included three Bretton Wood institutions, namely, GATT (today’s World Trade Organisation), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and IBRD (today’s World Bank) and the Marshall Plan (Holt, 2011; Omojarabi 2016).

Decades later, the international peacebuilding narrative expanded following the input of Johan Galtung. He was an eminent peace researcher who coined the peacebuilding concept in 1975. In his work on peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding, Galtung sustained that peace assumes a structure that differs from ad hoc peacemaking and peacekeeping (Kim and Richmond 2019; Wall 2018). For him, peacebuilding mechanisms should rest on this structure to ensure the removal of roots of war, social change via socio-economic reconstruction, social integration and harmony, and the provision of alternatives to violence in war-saturated situations (Hove 2015; Simangan 2020). Galtung primary emphasis was a shift from coercive and aggressive structures to a culture of positive peace by adopting a bottom-up approach that advocates the decentralisation of economic and social structure (Kim and Richmond 2019; Wall 2018).

As incidents of the varnishing Cold War halted, John Lederach, an American sociologist, furthered the advocacy for the bottom-up approach to peacebuilding in 1997. This catalysed post-World War-II global peacebuilding narrative (Dudouet and Schmelzle 2010). Lederach’s position was the grassroots-level engagement of local, regional, and international actors and non-government organisations towards inclusive, transformative, sustainable, and lasting peacebuilding processes (Omojarabi 2016; Simangan 2020; Wall 2018). This encompassed leveraging local capacity-building, interpersonal relationships, and institutions and international cooperation in peacebuilding. Lederach’s contribution to peacebuilding conceptualisation still reflected Galtung’s novel vision for positive peace, meaning that Galtung greatly influenced the contemporary models of international peacebuilding (Hove 2015; Kim and Richmond 2019).

Over time, global peacebuilding expanded to integrate new dimensions. These elements included reconstructing civil society, administrative, economic institutions, disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR), creating participation-oriented democratic institutions, political transition, human rights promotion, and rehabilitating wounded societies (Holt, 2011; Hove 2015; Omojarabi 2016; Randazzo and Torrent 2020; Wall 2018). The Agenda for Peace, led by former UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, popularised these dimensions. Further peacebuilding developments culminated in the peacebuilding architecture, established at the 2005 World Summit based on recommendations by former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan. This UN peacebuilding architecture advocated the establishment of three institutions, namely, the UN Peacebuilding Support Office, UN Peacebuilding Commission, and UN Peacebuilding Fund all aimed at enabling the UN Secretary-General to harmonise peacebuilding efforts (Bakker 2010; Philipsen 2014; Randazzo and Torrent 2020). Today, nation-states are responding to the growing worth of global peacebuilding as reflected in their peacebuilding budgets, processes, and security programmes.

4.0 Concept Operationalization: Epistemology of International PeacebuildingWhile international peacebuilding generally covers the external interventions, programmes, and initiatives designed to alleviate and curtail eruptions and reappearances of violence in a global frame, critical contrasts exist among scholars regarding its conceptualisation and operationalization. Barnett et al. (2007) submit that these differences become manifested in diverse interpretations over the operationalization of global peacebuilding, culminating in differences in perceptions over appropriate paradigmatic research methods for studying this construct. Even so, different epistemological paradigms define the scholarly, strategy, and practice nexus in the academic debate on peacebuilding (McCandless 2014).

An interesting observation that I have made during my research is that over the years, scholars who endorse one of these contemporary epistemological paradigms have tended to critique those who advocate other epistemological models. They do so by pinpointing flaws, biases or shortcomings of the alternative research methods under the paradigms they criticise when it comes to operationalizing international peacebuilding (Hercus 2013; Newman 2009; Paris 2010; Wall 2018). Specifically, advocates of pragmatic approaches to international peacebuilding have often tended to expose faulty assumptions and preconceptions associated with research methods for styling peace research under the liberalist, constructivist, or realist approaches. This way, for example, epistemological critiques of liberalist approaches to peacebuilding research have initiated the emergence of pragmatic approaches as popular in peacebuilding research, as Bargués-Pedreny (2015) and De Coning (2018) observe.

My endeavour is to critically evaluate each of these epistemological paradigms separately using academic literature. This undertaking assists in determining the one that offers the most sound and apposite grounding for research methods for studying international peacebuilding.

5.0 Critical Assessment of Epistemological Approaches to International PeacebuildingThe theoretical and practical study of global peacebuilding has provoked a plethora of international relations scholars to endorse different epistemological methodologies of peacebuilding research. The four that I critically analyse in this section include liberalist, constructivist, pragmatist, and realist approaches.

5.1 The Liberalist ApproachThe epistemological position of liberalist peacebuilding scholars is that civilisations can peacefully coexist as they are not always on the verge of violent conflicts (Körppen 2011). These scholars’ reasoning revolves around the presumption that despite the persistence of anarchism and armed conflicts, many nations are not usually at war. Within the liberalist peacebuilding discourse, such peaceful coexistence encourages the key tenets of promoting functioning liberal democracy, privatisation, sustaining human rights, and the rule of law (Newman 2009; Lemay-Hébert 2013). Other tenets include ensuring commercial and market economic reforms, stabilising and rebuilding conflict-affected states, and establishing state and domestic institutional conditions that drive peacebuilding (Newman 2010; Wallis 2018).

Liberalist peacebuilding researchers advocate strategic partnerships among different international actors towards providing peace and securıty and augmenting socioeconomic and socio-political interactions (Siradag 2012). Furthermore, the liberalist peacebuilding school of thought supports the notion that liberally instituted nations are more internally humane, peaceful, and prosperous compared to non-democracies, realising the multifarious peace-producing benefits of democratisation (Newman 2009). Based on this notion, these scholars build their research on the theoretical doctrine that liberal governments run based on people’s approval are politically stable, eventually leading to international stability and peace (Bindi and Tufekci 2018). Nonetheless, they still suggest that relations between states are never always a zero-sum game where one actor loses when another one gains. Here, the paradigm views the termination of violence between such nations as a window of essential change opportunity.

On my research question, the liberalist approach to global peacebuilding research encourages the application of a hybrid study methodology that combines qualitative and quantitative research methods. These methods focus on observation, ideological reasoning, discourse analysis, and analytical synthesis of archival research (Wall 2018). Two peace theories form the conceptual basis for these research methods, namely, democratic peace theory and institutional peace theory. The former posits that stable democracies neither participate in militarised and political disputes nor engage other democracies in war as their shared norms and institutions have powerful liberal contributions to global peace discourses (Bindi and Tufekci 2018; Lemay-Hébert 2013; Newman 2009; Zambakari 2016). This extension of democracy culminates in international peace and security. The institutional peace theory focuses on pursuance of long-term interests, sustained cooperation in situations of anarchy, and realising absolute societal gains over relative gains to coax people into coexisting peacefully.

Proponents of the liberalist paradigm claim some advantages attributed as its strengths in conceptualising peacebuilding. Firstly, they associate it with adaptability to and resilience against social and political changes (Jip, 2009). Their argument for this strength is the paradigm’s scepticism towards dangerous forms of totalitarian politicisation of social life aspects, which is vital in depoliticising peacebuilding (Körppen 2011; Newman 2009; Newman 2010; Schwarzmantel 2008). The second strength is that the approach adapts to multiple analytical tools and policy prescriptions that enable international peacebuilding researchers to maximise their scholarly scope as Newman (2009) alludes. Lastly, proponents of the application of this paradigm in peacebuilding research argue that it fosters state protection and constructively drives peaceful relations amongst liberal states by promoting equal opportunity, preserving human rights, and protecting the economic environment.

Critics of using the liberalist approach in global peacebuilding research have raised numerous criticisms that show its weaknesses. One of these flaws is that the paradigm overly relies on unrealistic basis assumptions (Philipsen 2014; Riis Andersen 2011; Zambakari 2016). For example, liberalist scholars assume that civil society mediates identity issues by introducing rational and self-maximising individuals, thereby shaping community interactions methods (Hercus 2013). Another assumption is that exchanges between states are constantly competitive, equal, and free, implying that globally integrated market-oriented policies and democratic institutions sustain international peace (Simangan 2020). Another assumption is the Hobbesian dilemma that suggests that states’ inability to exert control triggers the emergence of chaos (Körppen 2011; Riis Andersen 2011). The second weakness is that operational liberal peacebuilding strategies perpetuate the interests of capitalist societies characterised by aggressive foreign policy (Paris 2010; Siradag 2012; Wall 2018; Wallis 2018). Furthermore, the approach is flawed for artificially separating economics from other societal aspects, accepting the existence of socio-political frameworks as absolute. This dilutes the essence of international peacebuilding that requires considering multiple societal aspects. The approach’s fourth drawback is the failure to comprehensively facilitate our understanding of the international political economy and virtual empowerment, which are pivotal in global peacebuilding research (Newman 2009; Lemay-Hébert 2013). Lastly, this paradigm ignores the justice of economic activity, making liberalists’ analyses of economies static (Zambakari 2016). Despite these weaknesses, the liberalist approach has enhanced our understanding of intentional peacebuilding as revolving around war termination.

5.2 The Constructivist ApproachThe epistemological position of constructivist peacebuilding researchers is that social structures, culture, and frameworks of human institutions are indispensable elements in conceptualising international relations, hence global peacebuilding. Their perspective is that belief systems, norms, ideas, realities, values, and shared intentions that are socially constructed through actor interactions are critical to realising human security, therefore attaining global peacebuilding initiatives (Bakker 2010; Franke and Weber 2012). Constructivist peacebuilding scholars are concerned with how social agents and structures establish each other (Bercovitch, Kremenyuk, and Zartman 2008). They also focus on the socially constructed nature of social actors and their interests and identities and how normative, ideational, and discursive factors shape international political realities. This has imperative effects on global peacebuilding discourses and policy. Further, they consider bureaucratically technical processes, constitutive social relations, material factors, and causal social mechanisms when studying the construction of peace (Lemay-Hébert 2013; Wallis and Richmond 2017). A notion they uphold similar to liberalists is that the world exists in anarchy, but states remain constrained by an international structure shaped by their behaviour and identities (Galeano-Munoz 2018).

Constructivist peacebuilding researchers argue that violent political behaviours and associated resolutions and prevention depend on the ideas, norms, and social beliefs upheld by those portraying these behaviours in quests for money, sovereignty, and specific rights (Conteh-Morgan 2005). This assertion corroborates Bercovitch, Kremenyuk, and Zartman (2008) that the constructivist approach address international peacebuilding from the perspective of offering a holistic and multidimensional comprehension of conflict, war, and conflict resolution. Contextualising international peacebuilding from the conflict research standpoint entails focusing primarily on conflicts’ the momentum and self-selectivity (Bernshausen and Bonacker 2011). Concisely, constructivist peacebuilding scholars propagate the idea that constructivism offers an insightful paradigm for comprehensive inquiries into how ontological assumptions generate the methodological and epistemological frameworks underpinning arguments about the nature of global peacebuilding (Wallis and Richmond 2017).

Relative to my research question, the constructivist approach borrows broadly from various positivist and post-positivist research methods and incorporates several quantitative and qualitative study approaches (Wallis and Richmond 2017). It concentrates on discourse analysis, narratives, daily micropolitics, and texts, including case studies. Other research methods include counterfactuals, process tracing, and comparative methods, along with interpretive methods such as ethnography, genealogy, and narrative synthesis. These methods and their related theoretical frameworks develop a deeper understanding of local and social dynamics of social order and its discursive influence in forming critical global peace. They also reflect reliance on the structuration theory that deals with the creation and development of social systems, structures, and agents, together with understanding how these elements drive peacebuilding (Bakker 2010).

Proponents of the constructivist approach identify some merits that reflect its strengths. Firstly, the paradigm shifts the focus from interstate relations to intrastate relations, thereby concentrating peacebuilding to grassroots engagements (Wallis and Richmond 2017). It does so by enabling the realisation of human security at the personal, cultural-structural, and institutional levels (Conteh-Morgan 2005; Galeano-Munoz 2018). Secondly, it accounts comprehensively for structural changes and global political agents that influence peacebuilding, which other mainstream theoretical perspectives fail to explain (Bakker 2010). Thirdly, the constructivist approach provides a greatly compelling picture of how societies individually construct their reality versions that shape their identities, structures, and discourses around peacebuilding (Bernshausen and Bonacker 2011; Bercovitch, Kremenyuk, and Zartman 2008; Kim and Richmond 2019). Lastly, the paradigm offers a complementary and confirmatory framework for conflict resolution, which is imperative to peacebuilding.

Opponents of the constructivist approach have identified four flaws. Firstly, international norms advocated by this paradigm cannot create global cooperation or lessen uncertainties in international politics under a global anarchic order (Siradag 2012). Simultaneously, social interactions cannot facilitate the unification of actors to establish cooperation in such a system. Secondly, the paradigm overlooks many mechanics of anarchy, thereby failing to evaluate it properly. The third weakness is the paradigm’s overstatement of the roles of identities. Critics believe that while cultures, beliefs, and historical connections are important in creating cooperation, other factors, including economic and political, are also essential (Siradag 2012). Lastly, the approach is flawed in failing to balance the relationship between material elements and social elements. Despite the critiques, the constructivist approach offers unique insights into our understanding of the true nature of collective violence, societal emancipation, cultural identity, and other international relations concepts relevant in peacebuilding.

5.3 The Realist ApproachWhile this approach has not been greatly applied in conceptualising peacebuilding research, its role in intellectualising international peacebuilding is not ignorable. The epistemological stance of realist peacebuilding researchers is that nations pay attention to their interests first. In other terms, these scholars sustain that competition between nation-states drives international relations, necessitating them to advance their interests first. From the peacebuilding perspective, realists hold that states prioritise themselves primarily, strengthen their authority towards ending conflicts, and maintain stability, implying that peacebuilding must first be about state-building (Antonovskaya 2015; Newman 2009; Spears 2012). So, the paradigm pays less attention to democratisation, political power-sharing, and human rights while focusing more on establishing and rebuilding feasible state institutions and containing conflict escalation (Hove 2015; Wallensteen et al. 2018). This repression of conflicts sets the stage for advancing and preserving hegemonic interests of international peace and stability, which is the basis for realist global peacebuilding (Newman 2010; Omojarabi 2016; Waller 2015).

Also, the realist approach hinges on the notion that actual conflict sources are less important than the transformation of political arenas from anarchic situations (Spears 2012). Therefore, the attainment the realist peace begins with resurrecting individual nation-state and translating this to the international level. Realist peacebuilding scholars are also aware of other concepts relating to the relationship between war and peace. The first is that economic and military power of state matters in abstracting peace. The second is that nation-states should always seek peace with others, but prepare for war. The third is that war is inevitable, and anarchy continues to persist, but the preservation of security and peace is absolute (Antonovskaya 2015; Kim and Richmond 2019).

On my research question, the realist approach to global peacebuilding research integrates mixed-methods research designs involving experimental and quasi-experimental studies and relational research methods. Mixed-methods research designs conjoin elements of qualitative and quantitative methods, and allow for triangulation, augmenting the validity of research outcomes (Hove 2015). Using mixed research methods in studies with the realist paradigm enables the elucidation of integrated peacebuilding processes and the related cause-effect mechanisms. From a realist viewpoint, these research methods facilitate the comprehension of ontological underpinnings of the domain of reality within mechanisms and forces that drive peacebuilding (Eastwood et al., 2018). Relational studies allow for the dichotomisation of ethnographic ontologies in realist peace and violence from the perspective of methodological philosophies such as reductionism, nationalism, and intellectualism.

Advocates of this paradigm approach highlight its strengths, one of which is its reliance on realistic assumptions, unlike the liberalist approach. Secondly, they assert that its three core assumptions, namely, statism, survival, and self-help are applicable in many situations of peace research, broadening its relevance, especially in reducing liberalist zero-sum game of international peacebuilding (Kat 2015). The last strength is that the approach has high empiricism, theoretical specification, distinction, rigour, parsimony, and verification (Cacioppo, Semin, and Berntson 2004). These attributes provide clarity that peacebuilding interventions are dynamic systems.

Even so, critics identify some flaw of this approach, the first of which is its tendency to perpetuate egoism and self-interest actions in states (Siradag 2012). Secondly, the paradigm is condemned as lacking precision and showing contradictions in addressing national interests, power, anarchism, and power balance the conceptions of which are also inconsistent with non-European politics. Thirdly, contrary to proponents’ claims, the approach supports a zero-sum game mentality characterised by confirmatory biases and oversimplification. Nonetheless, these weaknesses do not erase the paradigm’s value in enhancing our understanding of state-building priorities in enhancing national peace toward building international peace.

5.4 The Pragmatist ApproachThe pragmatic paradigm for piloting international peacebuilding research is emerging as a contemporary alternative for responding to the shortcomings and failures of the liberal peace doctrine (De Coning 2018). As the liberalist peacebuilding era wanes, global peacebuilding is witnessing a pragmatic turn characterised by giving primacy to and empowering local institutions and practitioners and their capabilities, structures, capacities, and aspirations instead of emphasising external agendas, norms, and resources. Thus, the pragmatist approach to international peacebuilding research underscores the enablement of the understandings of idiosyncratic local epistemologies that have non-western and non-universalist knowledge towards achieving successful post-conflict transition (Finkenbusch 2016). This creates a rational ethos that infiltrates peacebuilding as hybridised actors, networks, institutions, and norms collaborate and consort to explore and experiment ways of shaping peace-oriented change and stability from the grassroots (Bargués 2020). This comes along with using systems thinking to facilitate resilience for new forms of enhanced, genuine engagement with local milieus (Kim and Richmond 2019; Moe and Stepputat 2018). This way, a pragmatist approach adumbrates the notion of building peace without peace.

The pragmatist approach supports the replication of positive peacebuilding practices from the perspective of global norms and rejecting cultures of corruption, deviance, and violence (Newman 2009). It ignores assumptions that international peace interveners must necessarily have the authority and knowledge to define predefined policy goals for peacebuilding and direct the processes of attaining these goals. Furthermore, pragmatist peacebuilding researchers borrow from anti-foundationalism that emphasises leveraging existing capacities, normative abstractions, and understandings and building upon them to reach new context-specific peacebuilding solutions without accentuating external resources, aesthetics, and knowledge (Moe and Stepputat 2018). The approach also acknowledges hybrid peace and the multifaceted, non-deterministic, and non-linear peacebuilding elements and progressions. These attributes make the pragmatist approach the preferred paradigm for international peacebuilding for the United Nations. UN peace operations are based on this paradigm also because it is ductile to evolving local dynamics without being constrained by predetermined peacebuilding goals (Simangan (2020).

Relative to my research question, studies with pragmatic research philosophy incorporate multiple research methods that range from qualitative and quantitative to mixed, participatory action, relational, and ethnographic research methods and designs. Deductive and inductive research approaches of either qualitative or quantitative nature allow for the exploration of axiological, epistemological, and ontological themes in international peacebuilding. This can be from multidimensional standpoints such as dualisms of peacebuilding agent and structure, the idealism of normative and strategic actions, and metaphysical aspects of peace (Frankel Pratt 2016). Ethnographic research with pragmatic underpinnings can be employed in perception-seeking peacebuilding studies (Carl and Pospisil 2019). Lastly, participatory action research can be focused on collective inquiry and experimentation to uncover the social experiences of local communities regarding peacebuilding.

Advocates of the pragmatic approach highlight numerous advantages that constitute its strengths. Firstly, it offers a full-bodied conceptual framework that expansively accounts for the conventional signification of phenomena while encompassing experiential, symbolic, and qualitative and quantitative modality of extra-conventional signification (Halton 2011). Secondly, it corrects other theoretical perspectives with adequate justifications by addressing practical questions directly and explicitly. Also, it provided a broad gamut of philosophical options for researchers to select (Frankel Pratt 2016). The fourth strength is the capacity to respond to and overcome most of the liberalist approach’s shortcomings. Lastly, the paradigm gives room for constantly revising human knowledge and ideas, a demonstration of its dedication to uncovering truth and determining reality practically.

Opponents of this approach critique it by identifying only three flaws. The first is that pragmatism fails to entirely cover the meaning of the ‘turn to ontology’ of peacebuilding, which seems to ignore post-conflict realities of political and security challenges (Bargués-Pedreny 2015). The second flaw is that its endorsement by European countries appears to propagate colonialism effects in Africa (Siradag 2012). Lastly, leftist critics argue that this approach does not offer a significant moral and political resistance prevailing institutional and social and relations. Even so, these weaknesses do not diminish the paradigm’s value in augmenting our understanding of the importance of grassroots actors in the global peacebuilding community.

6.0 ConclusionThe international peacebuilding agenda and discourse are progressively expanding, attracting different multidisciplinary scholars with divergent philosophical orientations to adopt different epistemol

EXPLORATION OF HEALTH AND POLICY WEBSITES

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Exploration of Health and Policy Websites

The State representatives of Illinois are eighteen congressmen where each represents one district. Each member of congress in Illinois has committee assignment that they should fulfil in the service duty for a maximum of two years. For example, District 1 of Illinois has a Democratic representative, Rush, Booby L whose committee assignments are energy and commerce. The senators of Illinois in the 113th Congress are Durbin, Richard J representing Democratic Party and Kirk, Mark representing the Republican Party. Durbin Richard belongs to Class II whereas Kirk; Mark belongs to class III. The major roles of the Illinois senators are discussing legislative acts and acting as eye-watch on the federal government (United States Senate, 2014).

Senator Dick Durbin is also an assistant majority leader. He has duties on implementation of affordable health care act on Illinois residents. Senator Durbin belongs to a committee that pushes for an affordable cost of health care in order to avoid millions of Illinois families to be in debt. Affordable health care act will reduce the prescription drugs cost, avoid substance abuse of health, and expand coverage on millions of people that could not afford (HHS, 2013). Senator Durbin belongs to subcommittee of Department of Health and Human Services for the provision of affordable care on Illinois people. Senator Mark Kirk belongs to the committee on health for the purpose of reforming laws governing the health sector especially for American students. Senator Mark has jurisdictions of ensuring efficient education on health issues, provision of employment of qualified health professionals and formulation of retirement policies of health professionals (United States Senate, 2014).

Illinois has Regional action coalition that assists in the implementation of the recommendations of the future of nursing. The coalition supports the efforts of the Illinois Governor as he provides the affordable care in Illinois. In addition, Illinois Nursing Centre is developing a workforce program that prioritizes the needs of the nursing sector towards improvement of health in the future. The working conditions of nursing professionals in Illinois should also improve for the purpose of the provision of quality services. Education sector has the responsibility of providing quality health programs that are beneficial in future careers, in nursing. Future of nursing campaign ensures provision of enough workers in the health sector, delivery of high quality services, and provision of patient-centred care of every Illinois resident. The campaign for action has responsibilities of improving the healthcare system towards provision of services on the Illinois residents. Nursing sector requires advanced research, quality practices and improved technology.

The relevant part of the website in the current practice of nursing is the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. The website provides helpful information on management of health sector and regional programs that are helpful towards health improvement. The website diversifies the activities present in the nursing sector through provision of Public health programs, social services programs, research, and responsive development (HHS, 2013). The website also gives the leadership hierarchy present in the nursing sector in order to offer efficient services on the people of Illinois. The strategic plan of Illinois nursing sector involve addressing issues that face the health and human services in terms of safety, confidentiality, and transparency (Nehring, Lashley & Ellis, 2002). The website that has relevant information for future advanced practice on nursing is the initiative on the future of nursing. The website gives evident cases on nursing investments. In addition, the website gives examples of support groups that boost advancement in nursing professional (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2011).

References:

HHS (Aug. 1, 2013). How the Health Care Law is making a Difference for the People of Illinois. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/facts/bystate/il.html” http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/facts/bystate/il.html

Nehring, W. M., Lashley, F. R., & Ellis, W. E. (2002). Critical Incident Nursing Management

Using Human Patient Simulators. Nursing education perspectives, 23(3), 128-132.

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2011). Initiative on the Future of Nursing. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.thefutureofnursing.org/” http://www.thefutureofnursing.org/

United States Senate (2014). Senators of the 113th Congress. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.senate.gov/general/contact_information/senators_cfm.cfm?State=IL” http://www.senate.gov/general/contact_information/senators_cfm.cfm?State=IL

Explorations of Specific Sarbanes Oxley Sections

Abstract

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has been one of the revolutionary legal frame works in US and all public companies regardless of their size have to comply with the provisions of the act. This legislation of the federal law of the United States came up with changes in corporate management in public companies to avoid cases of fraud and scandals in the management of public organizations. The act also seeks to introduce tighter control systems within organizations and improve the levels of compliance. The Sarbanes-Oxley section 302 is one of the parts that have been considered important when it comes to matters of compliance. This provision has particularly stressed on the role of financial reporting and auditing in organizations.

Discussion:

Well-organized companies have financial policies that control them. Despite the proper mechanisms for financial controls and accountability in the organizations, most companies have ended up being victims of non-compliance to the policies leading to huge losses and numerous court cases against the directors and managers of the companies. Many stakeholders such as investors and the members of the public have therefore lost confidence in organizations owing to numerous scandals experienced mostly in US firms in the past few years. The legislation is therefore a very vital tool when it comes to the restoration of confidence of the public in capital markets within the nation. The act clearly explains the roles of the corporate board and the penalties for those who went against the regulations stipulated by this legislation.

This section of the act has brought about accountability and transparency resulting to trust of organizations and companies by the public. The executives are mandated to take responsibility for the performance of the company by maintaining accuracy when giving financial reports. This is because shortcomings in the internal control of the organization and fraud cases concerning employees are properly covered in the act. These particular officers are required to ensure that the financial reports do not contain any information that is false or unqualified. The external auditor of a company is expected to give opinions annually on whether the information given by the executive officers and the chief financial officers of the companies are reliable. The limit of the behaviors of corporate officers the benefits for compliance and the penalties given to the non-complying companies are therefore well laid out within this act.

These regulations are effective in pointing out weaknesses in financial reporting for instance in fraud related cases, the management must address these issues in detail to avoid unlawful acquisition of money by the employees. Any deliberate destruction done to audit records such as correspondences and paper work, which are still in use, may end up in a fine or a ten-year jail sentence. This will greatly help in preventing the use and acquisition of assets from the company without any authorization. The use of information technology within a company’s setting immensely affect the way the internal control carried out because it directly involved in recording, authorization and processing of financial transactions.

The implementation of section 302 of The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has had a great impact in the day-to-day running of organizations. For example, the IT departments are mandated to maintain high levels of technology, which can help them, obtain new methods of selecting, installing and even maintaining complicated and highly rated business functions. This can transform the IT department into an important resource in the corporate world. Whistle Blowers, who are protected by this act, have come up to uncover misconduct by employees involved in financial fraud and this has helped in containing major scandals. One case of fraud at value line involving $24 million, which had gone on for almost 20 years, was uncovered in November 2009 thanks to Sarbanes-Oxley. It involved a conspiracy by the top-level management at the company to defraud the shareholders. The other major scandal was the Enron case, which involved a conspiracy between the management of Enron and the auditors who were not able to detect the high-risk business activities that the company had engaged in. At the end, shareholders lost more than $11 billion when the firm filed for bankruptcy. This was a major audit failure in the US as the external auditors provided unqualified reports about the company.

WorldCom, which was the second largest telephone company in the US, also had to deal with a major financial scandal that forced the company to file for bankruptcy protection. The case of WorldCom was a perfect accounting fraud where the CEO of the company enriched himself at the expenses of the shareholders. The firm was able to create an impression of good performance, which led to high share prices in the market, and hence the major shareholder who was Ebbers made huge gains from this situation only for the company to file for bankruptcy in early 2000.

Corporate governance has improved since companies are no longer in a capacity to manipulate information concerning inventories and sales due to the systems of reporting that have been put in place. A standard system of data entry in organizations as required by the act has encouraged transparency and has forced the employees to be more accountable for their actions when it comes to the company’s cash and property management.

The confidence of investors in financial reporting has improved a great deal and this was the main aim of the legislation. Improvements in management, auditing, and the general functions of the board in financial control cannot be ignored, Michael (2005). Companies have given financial restatements in companies has declined since they have considered adhering to the instructions given in the act. Many scandals involving accounting in companies in the United States have occurred like Tyco international, WorldCom among others that could have been prevented with full application of the provisions within the act.

By involving auditors in making consultations with the organizations, the disagreements within companies declined. This has speeded up reporting, improved accountability and the auditors have become more independent. The signing officers are therefore to evaluate the report and analyze its effectiveness on the company’s internal controls within a period of 90 days before they give their conclusion. The act insisted on the fact that shareholders also owned the companies and that the managers were only to work on their behalf in utilizing resources in the business. Sarbanes Oxley has truly assisted in the restoration of trust in United States markets due to its effort to encourage independent auditing, accountability and the whole process of financial reporting (Theodore, 2008).

Companies have centralized and made their financial reports automatic making their systems more efficient. The Sarbanes Oxley Act’s also affect non-US organizations though differences emerge in companies developed and developing countries. It’s however worth noting that countries that applies the SOX act in the operations are likely to get a favorable ratings in US and this boosts trade and investments with those companies. Companies from developed states have higher costs because transparency is considered important in their country as well. Besides this, better rating of credit may eventually result in listing on other stock exchanges outside the country.

Borrowing costs for companies that have implemented the recommendations of this act are much lower because their financial reports are accurate. Those with appropriate internal controls have also noticed an increase in the prices of their shares as opposed to those who have ignored the provisions of the act.

The Sarbanes Oxley Act does not affect most private firms in the United States but those among them that comply with the recommendations of the act are more transparent .Recent analysis done in these firms has shown increased profits and public trust and confidence. Most small firms experience a reduction in their stock value. This makes their earnings lower and consequently brings down their share prices. The changes in the cost of coming up with a public company in United States were greatly affected by these regulations. Private companies benefit from the fact that they do not incur extra costs like fees for external auditors, officers and board of directors insurance and legal costs. The Sarbanes Oxley act costs of compliance are high it has since caused changes in the market value from time to time. Private companies are likely to choose policies that are less expensive and this is likely to affect their performance, as total compliance with the act is the only way out in ensuring confidence and performance of the companies.

Conclusion

The provisions of the Sarbanes Oxley act have therefore changed auditing and internal control environment in the public companies in the US and the gains are being replicated in other developed countries. This act has therefore managed to avert major financial scandals that were witnessed in the early 2000 in major firms. It is therefore important that firms take internal controls seriously and adopt a collective approach to the process of auditing to protect the shareholder wealth.

References

Theodore, N. P. (2008). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act: implementation, Significance, and

Impact .Nova Publishers.

Michael, F. H. (2005). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act: overview and implementation

Procedures .Elsevier.

Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

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Institution Affiliation

Bother the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) are statistical approaches used in the examination of a measure’s internal reliability. This paper looks at the two statistical approaches by comparing and contrasting them as they are used in the article “The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity,” by Tarafdar, Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, (2007). The paper describes the survey instrument, the measurement levels, the IVs and DVs nature, model’s assumptions, robust of each assumption, computations, the rotation, factors retained, as well as the instrument reliability, and validity among other aspects.

The article makes use of concepts derived socio-technical theory as well as the role theory in an attempt to show the relationship between technostress and productivity. In the article, CFA and EFA approaches are applied in investigating the theoretical constructs and the factors represented in the study about the relationship between technostress and human productivity (Chilton, Hardgrave, & and Armstrong, 2005). The two approaches enhance the hypothesis that the factors used are correlated. Three hypotheses are thus developed. In hypothesis 1, stress comes out as people try to respond to various factors. Hypothesis 2 depicts stress as correlated to the roles of individuals within organizations. Hypothesis 3 also shows a correlation between technology and organization roles (Tarafdar, Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, 2007). The two approaches are used in accessing the quality of every item used in the study. Both the CFA and the EFA are applied for both confirmatory and exploratory purposes. This aspect is seen in the three hypotheses, which address the three variables differently.

While EFA and CFA are seen to have several similarities in their statistical applications, they greatly contrast in certain ways as well. The use of EFA required that a decision is made on the number of factors applied through an examination of the output from an analysis of principal component (Nygaard & Dahlstrom, 2002). For the article, a five-factor structure is first established to analyze the items. Conversely, the use of CFA requires a specification of the number of factors before the analysis. (Tarafdar, Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, 2007) Again, the CFA involve the specification of a particular factor structure with an indication of the factor on which each item would load while in the case of EFA, all items load all the factors. In estimating factor loading, maximum likelihood is used, but the maximum likelihood is one of the various estimators applied with EFA. Moreover, in the article CFA makes it possible for the researches to specify the measurement errors, which are correlated (Markus, 2004).

Various assumptions are used in developing the model. The model used assumes that technostress only affects both role stress and productivity. Technostress increases role stress and lowers productivity. The model assumes an inverse relationship between technostress and productivity, but a direct relationship between technostress and role stress (Nygaard & Dahlstrom, 2002). Again, role stress and productivity are inversely related (Chilton, Hardgrave, & and Armstrong, 2005). In this case, role stress is taken as both independent and dependent variable. It is a dependent variable to technostress, but an independent variable to productivity. The rotation aspect of the model makes it difficult to present the case graphically. Besides, one of the variables is used as both an independent variable and a dependent variable.

The issue of validity is ensured through literature survey findings in identifying the list of items to be used. A pre-pilot study is first conducted to present the first list of items to an end user group. This group has to comment on the items’ meanings and their validity. Only four factors were retained for the study because they were the most suitable for the study according to the validation process. The comments were then analyzed as well as the responses. The measurement of item was then revised and set for the actual phase of data collection (Tarafdar, Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, 2007). The measurement of items was done using a five-point Likert scale. The computation was based on the scale whose values were obtained through coding. For instance, each factor in the Likert scale is assigned a value that is later used in the computation.

In the research, the major ethical concerns include the ethical issues in information systems, the way respondents respond to the questionnaires, and aspect of confidentiality of information. These concerns intertwine with investigation within the organization of choice where some of the respondents may feel that their private spaces are threatened. The same issue is seen from the return rate of 88.3% in the article.

When applying this instrument to new research, it would be good to ensure the consideration of such ethical concerns. Again, it would be advisable to consider more factors and more variable, which can be clearly distinguished as independent or dependent. Besides, an interview could be used in order to gather meaningful qualitative data, which is more suitable for this kind of research. Questionnaires are best applicable in quantitative research. This would avoid the cyclical aspect of the stress effect on productivity.

References

Chilton, M., Hardgrave, B., & and Armstrong, D. P. (2005). Job cognitive style fit for software developers: The effect on strain and performance. Journal of Management InformationSystems, 22(2), 193–226.

Markus, M. (2004). Technochange management: Using IT to drive organizational change. Journal of Information Technology, 19(1) , 4–20.

Nygaard, A., & Dahlstrom, R. (2002). Role stress and effectiveness in horizontal alliances. Journal of Marketing, 66(2), 61–83.

Tarafdar, T., Nathan, R., & Ragu-Nathan. (2007). The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24(1), 301–328.

Explore the Relationships between Nursing, Health and the Policy Process

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Explore the Relationships between Nursing, Health and the Policy Process

Introduction to the case

This paper presents the case of a patient representing a diagnosis. It deals with the case of bipolar disorder which is a mental illness disorder. Bipolar disorder, also referred to as manic depression (Lyness, 2011), is a mental disorder that leads to changes in a person’s moods, ability to work or undertake numerous activities as well as shifts in energy (Goodwin & Sachs, 2010). The illness is mainly characterized by numerous mood swings, irritability, feelings of hopelessness and sadness and suicidal thoughts and attempts (NIMH, 2012).

The case is that of one of the patient that I have handled while at the community hospital. When the young man, Paul, visited the clinic he presented a number of behaviors that led to the diagnosis of the disorder. The abnormal behaviours were characterized by pacing up and down, incoherent fast speech and increased irritability. On the other hand, the 28 year old patient seemed to feel agonized by life to an extent that he considered it screwed up and contemplated suicide. Despite the fact that Paul looked disoriented with fluctuating bouts of energy and lethargy, the arrival of paramedics had completed irritated him. At one time, Paul reverted to a high mood during which he insisted on talking to his sisters and refused to be examined by the medics in spite of his awareness of the situation at hand. His mood was that of agitation and he looked so pressed and tired that he could hardly remain steady on his feet. At one point, in his many outbursts, Paul had talked of his boss threatening to fire him over his attitude at work. Further inquiries from his sister indicated that Paul was having problems at work as a result of his frequent mood changes and irritation that were as a result of his illness. The man had been issued with a suspension letter by his boss a few days prior his coming to the hospital. The patient was reported to have missed work for many days and his productivity reported to be very poor.

Identified Policies related to the Case

There are a number of policy issues that guide the diagnosis, treatment and care of mental illnesses. These are useful in the provision of guidelines on how the various mental health illnesses should be addressed not just in the health sector, but also in the social and economic institutions as well.

Statistics obtained from the National Institute of Mental Health in 2002 indicate that over 2 million adults in American suffer from bipolar disorder (NIMH, 2002). By 2005, the number had increased to 5.8 million adults (Kessler et al., 2005). This makes a huge part of the working population making the diseases have an enormous effect on the economic sector.

Putting this into consideration, a number of policies have been implemented to allow for interventions to the gap in the employment sector from this mental illness to be put in place. The policies among other things protect bipolar patients from discrimination and failed employment.

Bipolar disorder has been regarded as a disability and the patients are therefore protected by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The law serves towards protecting persons with disabilities.

According to the act, an individual is regarded as disabled if he or she has a mental or physical impairment that prevents him or her from engaging in one or more activity (EEOC, 2011). Upon assessment, bipolar disorder has been found to always limit the normal functioning of the brain as well as the normal undertaking of the various day to day activities. Having an accommodation as a bipolar disorder patient allows one to freely acquire reduced hours of work, get moved a working area that is more peaceful and quieter, break off from the job once in a while, get a job that is not strenuous and modify the various roles and responsibilities at work. According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the discrimination of an employee or a potential employee on the basis of his disability, color, race, family or class among other factors is unlawful (EEOC, 2011). Through the ADA act, therefore, bipolar patients are protected from getting fired or unfairly dismissed on the basis of their illness.

Stakeholders

The stakeholders relevant to this case include the health professional (nurses, psychiatrists and doctors) and governmental and Nongovernmental organizations such as National Alliance on mental Illness (NAMI), The National Institute of Health (NIH) which is under the US Department of Health and Human Services, The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) the National Institute of Mental Health, Mental Health America and the Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance. In relation to his job insecurity, Paul’s employer company will serve as another major stakeholder in this case.

Nursing’s political involvement in the issue

The role of every nurse should be to ensure that the patient receives all necessary treatment and care, and to provide all necessary information related to the patient’s illness not just for the patient but other affected persons, such as family members and guardians, as well (Hungerford, 2012).

In the case presented above, the main role of the nurse will be in educating the patient about the protection accorded by the ADA with regard to his employment status. Providing related information to the patient’s employer may also be another important aspect. In case the employer is aware of the patient’s condition and his various rights as stipulated in by the ADA act, then necessary legal action needs to be taken against him. Nurses can help in providing all the relevant information related to bipolar disorders and employment not just to the patients, but to the various work institutions as well for both employees and employers to gain all the relevant knowledge.

Personal Opinion

With this, then it is evident that Paul does not deserve to be dismissed from his job provided he has an accommodation. The patient has been protected by the ADA and needs to be aware of this. Generally, patients suffering from bipolar disorder in the US need to be well aware of the various policies that protect them and the various rights and privileges they enjoy.

Just as is common with all other mental illnesses, bipolar disorder has a strong impact on a patient’s relationships with other people that include friends, colleagues, spouses and family members. The need for psychotherapy for bipolar patients undergoing treatment is therefore important, making it need an evident one in this case. Psychotherapy is said to be important in mending the broken relationships. The available professional resources are likely to be highly beneficial for the family members as well as help the patients mend their relationships at work.

References

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). (2000). EEOC enforcement guidance on the Americans with Disabilities Act and Psychiatric disabilities.  HYPERLINK “http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/psych.html” http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/psych.html

Goodwin, G. & Sachs, G. ( 2010). Fast Facts: Bipolar disorder. , Oxfordshire: Health Press Limited Abingdon.

Hungerford, C., Clancy, R., Hodgson, D., Jones, T., Harrison, A. & Hart, C. (2012). Mental Health Care: An Introduction for Health Professionals. Sydney: Wiley Meadows.

Kessler, R., Chiu, W.,Demler, O. &Walters, E. (2005). Prevalence, severity and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Archives of General Psychiatry, 62 (6): 617-27.

Lyness, J. ( 2011). Psychiatric disorders in medical practice. Saunders Elsevier: Philadelphia.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Bipolar disorder.  HYPERLINK “http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/complete-index.shtml” http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/complete-index.shtml

Exploring Cultural Competence of Staff Working In Obstetric Ward Caring For Postnatal Mothers and Their Newborn Babies

Introduction

This study was to explore cultural competence of staff working in obstetric ward caring for postnatal mothers and their newborn babies as well as the knowledge and practices of postnatal mothers regarding neonatal care from selected urban and rural settings of Bangalore. “Good quality neonatal care, better our children shall fare” “Children are the wealth of tomorrow – take care of them, if you wish to have a strong India, ever ready to meet various challenges”. “Jawaharlal Lal Nehru” (Atkinson, 2005)

Healthy children are the greatest resource and pride of a nation. Investment in child development is an investment in the future of the nation. Children ought to be healthy and happy to become productive and contented adults of the future.

Aims and Objectives

1. To assess the knowledge of postnatal mothers regarding neonatal care

2. To describe the practices followed in their family regarding neonatal care

3. To determine the association between knowledge and practice of neonatal care

4. To determine the association of knowledge with selected baseline variable

5. To compare the knowledge and practice of mothers from selected urban and rural settings of Bangalore.

The conceptual framework used for this study is developed by the researcher from “nursing process model” It focuses on assessment of knowledge and practice of postnatal mothers and determining the need for a teaching program in the postnatal ward from the following sources;

Atkinson, K. (2005). Physiotherapy in orthopaedics: a problem-solving approach. New York: Churchill Livingstone.

This source generally talks about physiotherapy in orthopedics where Atkinson talks about Caring for Postnatal Mothers and Their Newborn Babies. The research approach adopted for the study is comparative descriptive design, which was considered appropriate for the present study. Purposive sampling method was used to select to samples from the postnatal ward of St. John’s Medical College Hospital and post natal mothers selected from Anekal Taluk Hospital for comparison. The data gathered from this source schedule was analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistics(Atkinson, 2005).

Armiger, P. and Martyn, M.A. (2010). Stretching for functional flexibility. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.

The two authors in this source talk about stretching for functional flexibility and the findings of the study are that the mean percentage of knowledge score of postnatal mothers from rural setting was 38.43% and mothers from urban setting were 49.77%. The correlation between knowledge and practice was assessed by correlation co-efficient (‘r’) test. It was found that there was a positive correlation between knowledge and practice except knowledge and practice of umbilical cord care. Association between knowledge and baseline variables of postnatal mothers showed that association between mother’s knowledge and their age, occupation and parity status was significant (Armiger and Martyn, 2010).

Andrews, J.R., & Harrelson, G. L. (2004). Physical rehabilitation of the injured athlete. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Physical rehabilitation of the injured athlete may seem irrelevant when it comes to the care of postnatal mothers and their new born babies but reading through the book makes one understand the relationship. The study reveals that irrespective of staff competency and postnatal mother’s educational status, their knowledge regarding the neonatal care was limited. Postnatal mothers from urban setting had more knowledge of good practice postnatal mothers from rural setting. To give newborn babies a happy and healthy childhood, we must safeguard their health right from the beginning. While each newborn baby is perceived as a precious gift to the family, it also brings with it new responsibilities, changes in behaviors and altered family dynamics. The major task of a family with a newborn according to this source is the healthy incorporation of the new person into the existing family structure (Andrews & Harrelson, 2004).

Anderson, M.K. (2002). Fundamentals of sports injury management (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins

After the baby’s birth, the mother establishes a realistic image of the newborn. This is what the source expounds on and Anderson the author of the source talks of the fundamentals of injury management and how the mother absorbs the newborn into her everyday world and into the social system through an acquaintance – attachment process. Through her, the newborn gradually establishes a firm relationship with other siblings and the rest of the family members. Care and nurturing of the newborn become the primary responsibilities of the parents, especially the mother.

According to this author, one of the most crucial needs often felt by the newborn’s parents is based on their sense of insufficient knowledge. The inherent need to learn more about the care of the newborn motivates the mother to learn from the environment, family members and health personnel.

American Physical Therapy Association. (2001). Topics in physical therapy: pediatrics. Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association

According to this source, a review of literature is an essential aspect of scientific study. It involves the systematic identification, location, scrutiny and summary of the written materials that contains information on a research problem. The ‘American Physical Therapy Association is a body that concentrates on pediatrics and mainly in the physical therapy topics. It broadens the view of investigator regarding the problem under investigation, helps in focusing on the issues specially concerning the study. The neonatal period is the most vulnerable period in the human life. It provides that Perinatal and neonatal mortality are increasingly important public health issues in the developing countries (American Physical Therapy Association, 2001).

American Physical Therapy Association. (2002). Topics in physical therapy: neurology. Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association.

American Physical Therapy Association in this context is a body that concentrates on neurology and mainly in the physical therapy topics. The concerned efforts of the past decade have resulted in gains, which though not dramatic still reflect trends as displayed throughout the source. These include greater awareness and concern about newborn health, distinct improvement in outreach and quality of newborn services at district and urban areas, declining trends in neonatal mortality rate and improvement in survival of Low Birth Weight (LBW) and high-risk infants. But the gradual and almost stagnant neonatal mortality in the last few weeks coupled with its impact on under five mortality rate as an indicator of human development has caused tremendous concern and interest globally and nationally in the state of neonatal health and delivery of newborn care in India. Newborn care includes breastfeeding and physical care (American Physical Therapy Association, 2002).

Stanley, D. (2011). Clinical leadership: Innovation into action. Palgrave Macmillan. Sydney.

Stanley is a recognized author experienced in matters related to clinical leadership, which plays a very big role in ensuring that the postnatal mothers are given proper care together with their newborn babies. The book talks of how the objectives of early neonatal care aim to assist the newborn in the process of adaptation to an alien environment. The late neonatal period according to this book carries the common and serious hazards of infection and failure of satisfactory nutrition. Diarrhea and pneumonia take a heavy toll of life in infants exposed to unsatisfactory environment. The case fatality rate of what would normally be trivial episodes can increase dramatically when elementary care is not given (Stanley, 2011).

Niemi, PM. (2008). Medical students’ professional identity: self-reflection during the preclinical years. London: Med Educ.

Related to how well the postnatal mothers are taken care of together with their newborn babies, this source targets Medical students’ professional identity. This source talks about self-reflection during the preclinical years where any wrong practices are carried out the world due to illiteracy and superstitious beliefs especially among people who reside in remote areas where poverty is prevailing and health facilities are far available. It is presumed that personal and socioeconomic factors have an influence on the knowledge of mothers about newborn care. These both aspects are interrelated.

Studies related to the topic Knowledge and practices about breast feeding: Education has a greater influence in the area of hygienic practices of breastfeeding. Studies conducted among nurses and other health workers to assess their knowledge related to breastfeeding practices (Niemi, 2008).

Gómez, D; Elena, HYPERLINK “javascript:__doLinkPostBack(”,’ss%7E%7EAR%20%22Jordà%2C%20Mireia%22%7C%7Csl%7E%7Erl’,”);” o “Search for Jordà, Mireia” J; Mireia, HYPERLINK “javascript:__doLinkPostBack(”,’ss%7E%7EAR%20%22Peinado%2C%20Miguel%20Angel%22%7C%7Csl%7E%7Erl’,”);” o “Search for Peinado, Miguel Angel” P and Miguel, A. (2012). Plos pathogens. Spain: Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (IBE, CSIC-UPF), Barcelona.

This book clearly gives evidence towards epigenetic mechanisms of a growing body and the mechanisms being responsible for biological phenomena regardless of the type of plant. The authors having many affiliations to caring for postnatal mothers and their newborn babies have great exposure to pathogens and one can tell with the contents of the book. According to the authors, there is great evidence of interaction of pathogens and hosts when it comes to epigenetic mechanisms. There are epigenetic technologies that the authors cross apply to host pathogen studies. Having gone through the book, one will be in the best position to understand the reason behind bees sucking nectar from only the good-looking flowers whereas there is nectar in other flowers and plants. The book contains enough charts, diagrams and graphs to understand epigenetic and genetics as well as parasitism and plant growth. Works in this book date 2012 showing that the content is up to date and valid (Gómez, Elena, HYPERLINK “javascript:__doLinkPostBack(”,’ss%7E%7EAR%20%22Jordà%2C%20Mireia%22%7C%7Csl%7E%7Erl’,”);” o “Search for Jordà, Mireia” Mireia, HYPERLINK “javascript:__doLinkPostBack(”,’ss%7E%7EAR%20%22Peinado%2C%20Miguel%20Angel%22%7C%7Csl%7E%7Erl’,”);” o “Search for Peinado, Miguel Angel” and Miguel, 2012).

Guardia, D; Conversy, L; Jardri, R; Lafargue, G; Thomas, P; Dodin, V; Cottencin, O; Luyat, M; Tsakiris, M. (2012). PLOS ONE. United Kingdom: Royal Holloway, University of London.

A good that talks of Anorexia nervosa patients and according to the many authors that have contributed to this book describe Anorexia nervosa patients report the larger feeling than normal. This closely relates to postnatal mothers where one feels uncomfortable with how she looks. This book therefore tends to explain the feeling and the factors that lead one to developing Anorexia nervosa. The authors get out of the way and mention something to do with confidence where lack of confidence can cause diseases such as Anorexia nervosa. It is the book for anyone planning to lose weight and someone going through self-crisis. Having gone through the book, the authors seem to have more information than expected because the title of the book does not look that wide. The study, where Guardia, Conversy, Jardri, Lafargue, Thomas, Dodin, Cottencin, Luyat and Tsakiris sought to establish the truth behind the erroneous judgement concerning the action. They further continue through the chapters to pose a question of whether the observed action on one’s body brings about discrimination or not. Despite the authors of the book being many, they also have many affiliations meaning there is more exposure (Guardia, Conversy, Jardri, Lafargue, Thomas, Dodin, Cottencin, Luyat, and Tsakiris, 2012).

Gibbs. (2008). Reflective Cycle as a tool for expressing the reflection. New York: New York Times.

Gibbs concentrates on issues related to giving care to postnatal mothers and their newborn babies and in Reflective Cycle as a tool for expressing the reflection, Fifty-nine female health functionaries working in 12 blocks of Kangra were selected at random. 58% of the respondents initiated breastfeeding within one hour of birth. 15.4% of urban and 11.9% rural women initiated breastfeeding within one hour of birth. 42% had initiated within one day of birth.

Majority (63%) breast-feed for more than one year. As high as 50% gave one or other prelacteal feeds. Most of the functionaries (69%) bottle-fed their youngest child. In another study out of 322 nurses were interviewed about their knowledge and attitude towards breastfeeding, only 50% of the nurses felt that breastfeeding should be initiated soon after birth. 76% of the nurses felt that mother should stop breastfeeding on developing nipple crack or fissure. 23.2% of the nurses felt that breastfeeding should be stopped during diarrhea. According to the source, regarding the age of continuation of breastfeeding only 25.4% of the nurses felt that it should be continued up to 2 years of age (Gibbs, 2008).

Boud , D. (2004). Avoiding the traps: seeking good practice in the use of self assessment and reflection in professional courses. New York: Social Work Education.

This is a good source for the topic “Exploring Cultural Competence of Staff Working in Obstetric Ward Caring for Postnatal Mothers and Their Newborn Babies.” Avoiding the traps and seeking best practice in the use of self assessment and reflection in professional courses is what this source feeds the researcher or reader with and gives Variations that exist in the actual practice of breastfeeding that depends on the education and socioeconomic level of the woman. In many parts of the country breastfeeding is delayed from hours to days. One reason commonly cited for delaying breastfeeding is the set beliefs surrounding colostrums (Boud , 2004).

Cox, L. (2011) A Presidency Upstaged: The Public Leadership of George H.W. Bush. Texas: Texas A&M University Press.

The baby is fed with any one form of a combination of prelacteal feeds like cow’s milk, employing others mothers with small children from the family or neighboring families for breast-feeding the neonate, sugar water, honey, castor oil to clear the gut from me conium, mixture of herbal preparation etc. All this is what makes up the book above by Cox a Texas A & M university Press publication suggesting that until the mother is free from production of colostrums. According to Sushruta (Ancient IndianScripture) breastfeeding should begin on the5thday and sometimes breastfeeding is initiated on the 6th day after celebration called “Chatti.” (Cox, 2011)

Hart, P. & Uhr, J. (2008). Public Leadership: Perspectives and Practices. Atlanta: ANU E Press.

This source relates to the topic because there must be leadership for proper care to be given. The two authors talk about how in west Delhi, 600 breastfeeding mothers in the age group 16-40 were assessed to find out the popularity of the practice of breastfeeding. All mothers had breastfed their babies. Fifty two (91%) mothers said that they had discarded their colostrum thinking that it is harmful for the newborn, and usually cause constipation, vomiting and other digestive problems. Eight mothers discarded their colostrum at the advice of older women without having any knowledge regarding its harmful or beneficial effect. Four mothers (0.7%) kept squeezing out their breast milk for 3-14 days as some customary rituals could not be performed by some of the relatives due to their late arrival. Initiation of breastfeeding varies from 52.7% starting within 6 hours to 0.7% starting beyond the 3rd day of delivery, and the babies were fed with cow’s milk, “Ganga water”, sugar solution or honey (Hart and Uhr, 2008).

Paul, A. (2006). Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining. New York: new Yew York times.

The source is among the many sources that make the topic interesting as it talks about how some women continue to have concerns about their newborns cord site after discharge and they perceive the cord as being of concern only when the typical signs of cord infection such as order and bleeding with separation are present. Another study revealed that mother had good knowledge about the need for hygiene when cutting the cord, need for knowledge and practice in other aspects of cord care, and was afraid of handling the cord.

Poor knowledge and practices in the source were associated with poor young mothers with low education who had acquired their knowledge from sources other than health workers were incorrect and outdated. There is considerable debate among parents and health care professionals about the most effective treatment of newborns umbilical cord (Paul, 2006).

Bobbitt, Philip, 1998, Parlor Games. Constitutional Stupidities, Constitutional Tragedies. New York, New York University Press.

This source talks of the Constitutional Stupidities, Constitutional Tragedies for example In Nigeria and Pakistan. Incidences of neonatal tetanus occurred in some chapters of the book due to delivery conducting in unhygienic surroundings when poor methods of cutting and managing the cord. The cords were treated with hot compresses, Shea butter or ghee heated with dried cow dung after cutting. Complications of umbilical hernia are seen more often in malnourished children of low socioeconomic status being brought in unhygienic surroundings. It is a good source for getting the idea to write about the quality of care given to the postnatal mothers and their newborn babies (Bobbitt and Parlor, 1998).

Robert, T. Croyle (2005). Theory at a Glance: Application to Health Promotion and Health Behavior (Second Edition). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.

This source by Robert addresses mothers on the Knowledge and practices about prevention of infection. The national institute of health source suggests that Agents of bacterial sepsis in the neonate are thought to enter the body through the conjunctiva, respiratory orgastro intestinal tracts or the skin. Evidence for the skin as a potentially important portal of entry for invasive infections comes from several sources. A healthy developmentally mature skin, presence of vernix, biochemical, e.g. acidic pH and antimicrobial factors e.g. free fatty acids, polar lipids. The first week of life when epithelial barriers are relatively immature is the neonate’s most vulnerable period, when 50 to 70% of fatal and life threatening neonatal illness, most of which are infectious in nature occur in developing countries (Robert, 2005).

George, B. (2009). Nursing Theories- The base for professional Nursing Practice , 3rd ed. Norwalk, Appleton & Lange. Ltd.

Regarding the topic of the paper, this source helps the caregiver opportunity to explore the underlying requirements of helping a postnatal mother. The caregiver becomes well versed in matters related to her skin and that of the newborn baby. If skin serves as a potential portal of entry for invasive pathogens, the prevention of skin injury, reduction of skin contact and colonization with potential pathogens and augmentation of skin barrier function may serve as an effective means to reduce the infection risk of neonates. Aspects of care that are particularly important include caregiver hygiene especially hand washing, routine bathing and skin care (George, 2009).

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services. (2011). Government – US Federal,  Science & Health,  Government – US States,  Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP),  Affordable Care Act,  Medicaid. Florida: Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services.

This source talks about Government – US Federal, Science & Health, Government – US States, Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), Affordable Care Act, Medicaid. This is to prevent skin irritation and injury care of the umbilical cord stump and the preparation of the skin prior to invasive procedure that have the potential to introduce infections organisms into the skin or deeper tissues and blood stream coverage level is more than 90%. In rural areas, children with low parent education and socio economic status and those from high household size had significantly low immunization coverage levels compared with children from other groups (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services, 2011).

Wegner, J. (2009). Health promotion. New York: New York times

According to this source, the main reason for the low immunization coverage was that the mothers do not care in completing the immunization partly due to lack of awareness and partly due to non-availability of health services. Knowledge and practices about maintenance of warmth: Newborn baby is a homothermous, but his ability to stay warm may be easily overwhelmed by extremes of environmental temperatures. A newborn is more prone to develop hypothermia because of large surface area per unit of body weight. Hypothermia is a common problem in neonates, particularly in developing countries where it is an important contributory factor to neonatal mortality and morbidity (Wegner, 2009).

Conclusion

A retrospective study of traditional concept and practices for the prevention of neonatal hypothermia was conducted in three Himalayan villages the community was found to believe that newborns are vulnerable to cold induced disease for the first few months of life. Birth attendant & mother practiced traditional means for thermo regulation like a warm heated room, early rooming in, oil massage & layers of warm clothes. Nevertheless, the ritual practice of bathing immediately after birth and then up to three times each day even in winter is not perceived by them to provoke hypothermia.

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Exploring Management

The text describes six “must-have” managerial skills (see p. 17). (1) Which do you think is most important, and why?

According to Schermerhorn, the six ‘must have’ managerial skills are teamwork, self management, leadership, critical thinking, professionalism and communication. Of the six, I think critical thinking is the most important. Critical thinking refers to the ability of a manager to skillfully look at information relating to a situation and giving the best judgement and decision. It allows a manager to come up with problem solving solutions and make sound decisions. Critical thinking is more important than other managerial skills because it affects whether a business or company and the manager is successful or not. This is especially true in smaller companies. Sound decision making will enable the company take advantage of opportunities and avert or deal with problems that affect them. Once sound decisions have been made the manager is then able to use the other skills to ensure they are implemented.

Which do you think is the most difficult to achieve, and why?

Of the six management skills mentioned above, I think leadership is the most difficult to achieve. This is because it depends on the employees’ reactions towards the manager as opposed to only the manager himself. It involves being able to influence employees working under him/her to implement set strategies. The manager should be able to motivate, guide and coordinate employees in order to be more efficient and productive. The manager has to possess leadership qualities to be a good leader and instill confidence in his/her employees. However, the attitude, abilities and perceptions of the people being led also determine whether or not a manger is successful in implementing projects and decisions.

Describe the difference between “unethical” behavior and “illegal” behavior. How does an individual determine whether certain behaviors or actions are ethical or not? Give an example of an illegal act that you believe may still be ethical.

Unethical behavior refers to that which is not acceptable within an organization. Employees are normally guided on this by the company’s code of conduct. It outlines which behaviors are considered proper and which are considered unethical within the organization. Examples of such practices are sexual harassment issues and using company property for personal work. Unethical behaviors are not all illegal. Illegal behavior refers to that which is not allowed and can lead to a person being prosecuted in a court of law. They include insider trading, discrimination and sexual harassment. An individual can determine whether or not a certain behavior is ethical or not by using the guidelines provided in a company’s code of conduct. In case it is still not clear, they are expected to consult a responsible officer within the organization such as the Human resource Manager on the issue. Organizations should ensure that all employees are educated on the code of conduct during induction of new employees and regular trainings conducted for other employees.

An example of behavior that is illegal but may be considered ethical is for a company in a third world country allowing a child to work because they are orphans and the sole breadwinner in the family with younger children to look after. This is illegal but may be considered ethical because it is for a greater good and the child and their family would not survive without the job.

Your company has two divisions, both of which are requesting an additional investment of $100,000. The company is only able to make one $100,000 investment and the company president asked that you make your recommendation for which division to benefit. Using the 5 steps in the decision-making process, explain how you might decide which investment to make.

The first step is to identify and evaluate the problem. In this situation, the problem is deciding which division should receive the $ 100000 investment. The next step is to generate and evaluate alternative courses of action. In this case, I will do a cost benefit analysis on both divisions to get information on which one will bring the most benefit to the benefit at the least cost. An alternative course of action would involve carrying analysis on whether the divisions could benefit from less money being invested such as a 50-50 investment on both divisions. The cost benefit will determine whether the investments will produce viable results for the company. The next step is to choose the preferred course of action. This is the one which will provide the most benefit to the company. In this case it can be one division or the combined benefit of a 50-50 investment on both divisions. The money will then be invested in the most profitable option according to their budget and plan of action. The final stage will involve analyzing whether the chosen plan of action will produce expected results and whether there is need to go back to the drawing board.

Your company is planning to launch a new product in 6 months. As product manager, describe how you would use the 5 planning steps to ensure that the product launch is successful.

The first step in the planning of the launch of a new product is to define the objectives. The major objective of launching the new product is to introduce it and make people aware of its existence and give them a chance to try it out. In determining where the company stands vis-a-vis these objectives, I would look at how well other company products are doing in the market as well as other substitutes to the new product. Strengths that could help in the launch would be the good reputation of the company and the company being a strong brand name. This will help market the new product during the launch. Weaknesses to be considered before the launch include how much a competitor offering a substitute has penetrated the existing market. If a competitor has a large market share, the company has to work harder make their product more attractive to the consumer.

The next step is to develop premises regarding future conditions. In this case it involves whether the launch is successful or not. If the launch is successful, the company may go ahead and move to other geographical regions and if it is not successful it may employ sales promotions and other marketing strategies to penetrate the market. Once these steps are completed, I will make the best plan to achieve the objectives of the launch. This will involve using sales promotion techniques during the launch such as giving free samples and carrying out demonstrations for the new product. The plan will then be implemented and evaluated once the launch has been done and where needed corrective action done.

Since its inception, the overriding value of Google’s founders has been “do no evil”. Evaluate this value, both as an “observable value” and “core value” in their current environment.

Google is known to have an informal ‘Do No Evil’ mantra in the corporate environment. According to Google, this means that it will put its users first and that it is honest in the provision of its services. As a core value, this policy has enabled users to trust Google due to the information and services it provides. Users are more confident in using it when they know their privacy is taken care of. However, there have been cases where Google has not lived up to its own policy leading to lawsuits and complaints. This includes issues such as placing advertising cookies in websites thereby violating the privacy of the users. An example Google paid a fine of $22.5 million to the Federal Trade Commission for violating their privacy.

Power, in its different forms (reward, coercive, and legitimate) are discussed on p. 259. Assuming that there are legitimate reasons to use all three forms as an effective leader, identify three situations (one for each type of power), where that power might be effectively utilized.

According to Schermerhorn, leaders use position power to achieve influence in the work place. Reward power refers to a situation where a leader offers incentive to influence a person to do a certain job or activity. An example of a situation where this might be effectively used is when dealing with the sales team. The manager can offer promotion for the people who make the highest sales within a given period. Coercive power refers to a situation where the manager makes the employees aware that they will receive punishment if they do not do what he expects of them (Schermerhorn, 2012). Punishment can be in the form of termination of employment or bad job reviews. A situation where this might be effectively used is where an employee who has been consistently not meeting their targets is told to improve their performance or face termination. Legitimate power refers to a situation where a leader uses his formal authority to achieve influence in the workplace (Schermerhorn, 2012). A situation where this is effective is one where the manager tells an employee at a lower rank to prepare a certain report for him and the employee does it because the manager is within his authority to do so.

You have become the manager of a division of a not-for-profit that has just suffered a major embezzlement by its CFO, who stole 75% of the donations meant to help the charity. The staff is suffering from low morale and the Board of Directors is considering closing the divisions instead of trying to rebuild donations to make the charity viable. As leader, you want to make the division work. Chose at least 2 types of “new” leadership strategies described on p. 272 and discuss how these might help you become the type of leader who can effectively rebuild your division.

In rebuilding my division I would use transformational and interactive leadership strategies to build the morale of the staff members as well as move forward in rebuilding the organization as a whole. Transformational leadership involves inspiring staff members to internalizing the division’s vision as their own thereby making them more motivated and give extra ordinary performance (Schermerhorn, 2012). Using this form of leadership will raise the staff’s morale and motivate them to work towards rebuilding the division. Interactive leadership will involve encouraging participation from the staff members to come up with solutions to deal with the problem. This is done through communication and teamwork in the work place. This will help rebuild the division by fostering a feeling of inclusiveness in the organization where everyone is involved. It will also provide an environment where creative and innovative ideas are encouraged from the employees thereby enabling the organization to choose the best one for the division.

Discuss the importance of a manager’s understanding of the differences in personality traits, for both the manager and her employee. Are there any personality traits that you believe are more conducive to being an effective leader? Discuss.

There are differences in individual personality traits within the work place. It is important for both the manager and the employee to understand these differences in order to reduce conflicts in the work place. Differences in personalities are potential stress factors in an organization. The manager is able to lead the staff members better by understanding their different personalities as they influence how they work. Employees should understand the manager’s personality for the same reason. Personalities that are more conducive to being an effective leader include being proactive, emotional stability and being objective. Being proactive enables a leader to react positively despite challenges that they may face while emotional stability will allow them to deal with the different personality traits of the employees. The leader should be objective in their dealings with the employees.

How can our perceptions affect us as managers, and how can they help us? How do “attribution errors” and “self-serving bias” negatively impact our ability to be effective leaders? Give an example of each.

Perception refers to the process through which people perceive and in interpret information from the environment (Schermerhorn, 2012). It affects how we perceive ourselves and those we interact with. Perception affects how we react to different situations and people. As managers, perceptions can affect how we relate with employees and how they respond to our leadership. Positive perceptions help by making employees react positively to leadership. Attribution errors and self serving bias affect a manager’s ability to be effective by making it difficult to solve problems within the organization due to incorrect judgement and not taking responsibility for our actions. They also cause conflict within the work place. An example of an attribution error is interpreting the lateness of an employee as being as a result of poor time management while they had a problem on the way to work such as the car breaking down. An example of a self serving bias is blaming an employee for not completing a report on time while you gave them the information required at a late hour.

You hired a new employee for the Finance Dept–a woman who just graduated from an MBA program. She will work directly for you. You want to make sure that not only that she does a good job and is successful, but enjoys the work as well. How can you use Maslow’s Theory and Hertzberg’s Theory to motivate this employee?

Maslow’s theory shows that human needs are important factors to consider in the motivation of an employee. This requires the manager to recognize and understand the employees’ needs. To motivate the new employee, I will provide opportunities for her needs to be fulfilled. This can be done through providing opportunities for job progression and decision making within the organization as well as giving her responsibilities. This will enable the employee to have job satisfaction and hence be more productive. Compensation and benefits given should also be attractive depending on the current market conditions and work done. This will enable her to fulfill her basic needs and work towards fulfilling higher needs such as esteem needs. Working conditions will also be conducive. Praising and rewarding work well done will also be done to further motivate her.

Hertzberg’s theory suggests improving hygiene and satisfier factors to motivate employees. This will involve providing a conducive working environment for the employee as well as attractive compensation. In addition, opportunities for personal growth within the organization will be made available. The employee will also work that is relevant to their experience and education and also allows them to make decisions and come up with solutions.

You decide to get into shape so that you can run a marathon (26.2 miles) in 2 months for your birthday. You start today by running 6 miles, uphill. You collapse in 6 blocks with cramps in your legs. You limp home and never put on your running shoes again. How could “goal-setting theory” have made this a better experience? How could you better structure your goals so that you might be able, at some point, to run a marathon?

This involves setting goals that are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time bound (SMART). This will motivate me in achieving my goal. Using the goal setting theory would have ensured I chose to run manageable and attainable distance and build up to longer distances as the days pass. It would also enable me to choose the best running shoes for the activity and set aside time for stretching exercises before training. The best structure is to start with 3 miles per day in the initial days with resting days each week. By the end of the second week I can be able to run 6 km each day thereby building up my resistance. This progression will continue until I am able to run the full 26.2 miles each week.

You are the coach of a college basketball team. They were in 1st place in their division until 4 weeks ago, when they started to lose. Their performance begins to falter in the last half of each game–you suspect there is a teamwork issue. Discuss what you might do to help the members work together as a team to play better. (Assume that the individual player skills have not changed.)

Team success always depends on members contributing in a wide variety of ways to help the team reach its goals (Schermerhorn, 2012). To help the members work together as a team, I would conduct a team building exercise with the members to help them learn the importance of teamwork and enhance cohesiveness. In addition, I will emphasize on teamwork during practice so that they learn how to play well together. I will also teach them how to communicate with each other during the game to ensure better performance.

What do you think this assessment says about your preferences for how you learn? Do you think you can change this if you need to in a certain situation?

My assessment says that I learn better through visual, print, auditory and kinesthetic methods at 20%, 20%, 18% and 17% respectively. This would change in different situations depending on the resources available and the activity or work being done. An example would be learning how to pitch a tent at a campsite where I would learn better through the kinesthetic method. Different situations would require different methods of learning as some require a level of engagement from the learner while others do not. Another activity would be learning pottery where to learn better I would have to be a haptic learner.

What is your score for personal values, social values, and terminal values? Terminal values are described in ch. 3—what does your score say about your preference for the goals you would like to achieve? What does this mean for you as a manager?

My scores are personal values- 343, social values-107 and terminal values-236. This shows I preferences to values such as a sense of accomplishment, inner harmony and a world of peace. It also shows I give more preference to terminal values than social values. As a manager, this means I will be able to look at the greater picture of the company as opposed to just my line of work. Personal values such as a sense of accomplishment would mean I would be able to meet my targets within the work place. In addition, I attach a great importance to social values such as true friendship.

What is your score and what do you think it means about the way you prefer to evaluate information and make decisions? Based on your score and the Ch 5 reading in chapter 4, do you think you are an intuitive “thinker” or “feeler” OR a sensation “thinker” or “feeler”. Discuss

My score is 5 which mean I am a sensation thinker. According to the assessment I am able to evaluate information and make decisions based on the facts given and take a realistic approach. Sensation thinkers or feelers are more comfortable with impersonal issues which can be solved based on the facts given on them. Intuitive thinkers or feelers are more personal and thoughtful and are more likely to come up with creative problem solving techniques than sensation thinkers. Sensation thinkers make systematic managers who prefer to make a plan and strategy before undertaking any activity in the work place.

What is your score? If it is low, what areas (based on your answers to particular questions) do you feel that you can make a change to better manage your time? Do you feel that you procrastinate? How does this add to stress?

My score on time management was 8. I don’t feel like I procrastinate because I allocate time for urgent and important work and do most of it during the morning when I have more creative energy. Procrastination adds to stress because one has to do work that is important within less time than is adequate because it is urgent. The work done will not be done as well as it would have been if more time was used to complete it. One has to work under pressure due to urgency. To avoid this, one should complete important work before it is urgent so that they have time to do it well without pressure.

What is your score? What do you think this says about you as a person and manager? Define “ambiguity” and discuss why this is an important topic in a management course. How can you increase your tolerance for ambiguity?

My score is 55. This means I am not very comfortable with ambiguous situations. As a person and a manager, I like clear situations where I know exactly what is expected. Ambiguity refers to a situation that is vague and not clear. One is required to come up with a method of handling the situation. It is important to learn about ambiguity because there different types of organizations: some are structured while others are not. People should be able to deal and accept change as it is inevitable. It is importance to increase tolerance for ambiguity because it helps us work better in an organization. This can be done through having an open mind and brainstorming in different situations to come up with different methods of doing things rather than just following the given way.

There are 3 vignettes–identify what TYPE of decision is appropriate for each. In addition to identifying the decision type, discuss why you chose your answer.

The most appropriate decisions for the vignettes are individual decision for vignette1, consultative decision for vignette 2 and group decision for vignette 3. Individual decision is where the manager looks at the problem and makes the decision on his own. This is appropriate in the first vignette because individual as the leader already has the variables required to make the decision. Consultative decision is where the manager tells the group of the issue at hand and they give suggestions but the final decision is made by him. This is appropriate for the second vignette because the engineers will be made aware of the impending move as well as provides opportunity for those who do not mind moving to come forward. The manager will then be able to come up with names based on their discussion.  Group decision refers to a situation where the manager tells the group about the issue and working together to come up with the solution. This is appropriate in the third vignette as there are several members in the group who have knowledge required to complete the task. The leader will then facilitate the group in making the decision.

What is your score on the Co-Worker scale? What does this say about your preferred leadership style? Why do you think it is important to understand your particular style/preferences? If you have a strong preference one way or the other, can you see how it might be important to develop skills that would help you operate differently if a particular situation might warrant it? For example, if you are very relationship-oriented, why would you need skills to be task-oriented?

My score is 60. This means I am a task motivated leader where I am able to give instructions when a task needs to be completed despite the situation. It is important to know your preferences because they affect how you relate with co-workers. This allows one to learn how to handle others within the work environment. It is important to be able to operate differently depending on the situation at hand. Being more task motivated than relationship oriented, I would need to be more open minded about work mates’ behavior to relate with them better.

This shows a tendency to type A or B personality. What is your score? Explain what you think that means about you—are you type A or B, and do you agree with that? What do you think this says about my personality type and how I function both personally and professionally?

I scored 99 which is midway between type A and type B personality but leaning towards type B. This means that I take things as they come without stressing about them unnecessarily. I agree with the assessment based on my reactions to different situations. People with type B feel pressure in situations that warrant them and allow them to function well both professionally and in their personal lives. Type A people stress about most things and are not able to function well. The stress also has health implications.

What is your score? How do your scores compare? Review Hertzberg’s two factory theory in ch. 13 and briefly discuss what the two factors mean. How does this theory relate to what motivates you? How can you use your knowledge of your employees’ scores to increase their motivation?

I scored 28 for the motivator factors and 32 for the hygiene factors. This means that I attach more importance to hygiene factors such as a good salary and good working conditions at the work place. The motivator factors score is almost the same which means they are also quite important to me as an employee. According to the Hertzberg theory, to be motivated in the work place I would need a conducive working environment and good benefits. To increase motivation, such an employee requires improving factors such as employee policies to reduce job dissatisfaction. Relations with colleagues also play a big part in reducing dissatisfaction.

This shows how comfortable you might be in providing feedback. What is your score? If in the low to mid-range (14 to 51 points) what can you do to become a bit more assertive in your approach to others? If you have a very high score, how could your assertiveness be a problem?

My score is 39 which mean I have moderate assertiveness. This means that I am uncomfortable in giving feedback in some situations but am more comfortable in others. Situations that I am not comfortable giving feedback in are mostly those which have negative implications to the person they relate to. To become more assertive I need to practice giving constructive feedback and gaining confidence to be able to deal with those issues that need to be addressed. In addition I can observe people within the workplace who handle similar issues more assertively to get tips on how to handle sensitive issues.

References

Schermerhorn, J.R. (2012). Exploring Management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved from http://edugen.wileyplus.com/edugen/student/mainfr.uni