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Algebra with Applications Posts 6

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In financial management, the calculation of credit card interest is critical to organizations and creditors. Credit card interest is the standard way of generating revenue by credit card issuers, whether banks or credit unions. The issuer provides a customer with an account number or a card for making payments or borrowing money from banks. This aspect makes it necessary for people to keep track of their credits by calculating credit interests. Three main methods of calculating credit interest include Previous Balance Method, Adjusted Balance Method, and Average Daily Balance Method (ADB) (ASAP Credit Card, 2012). The Previous Balance Method involves charges 0.04931 per cent of the previous balance and multiplies the result with the sum of days in a billing cycle. In the Adjusted Balance Method, a creditor would be charged 0.04931 per cent of the adjusted balance. The adjusted balance is calculated as a difference between the previous balance and the payments made. The adjusted balance is then multiplied by the sum of days in a billing cycle (ASAP Credit Card, 2012).

The Average Daily Balance Method places charge of 0.04931 per cent of the average daily credit balance. The best method for a creditor is the adjusted balance method. This method is the most preferable method since it results to the lowest charges as interest because new purchases are hardly accounted for during calculation. All payments are deducted from the previous balance before adding interest making it cheap for creditors (ASAP Credit Card, 2012).

The power of compounding interest can be applied in paying for a future expense. Taking an example of $100,000 as savings and an interest rate of 10% per month, the amount would be $110,000 by the end of the month, $121,000 by the end of the second month, and $133,100 by the end of the third month. This amount grows monthly by 10% of the total sum of the principal amount and the accrued interest (Kennon, 2013). The value of money would have grown to enough amount of money possible for paying future expenses while accounting for the devaluation of money with time.

The concept of credit rate calculation is practically helpful in finding out the cost of owning a credit card, cost of borrowing, and the best method one has to use make payment for interest rate charges on credit in real time applications. Given a chance of a financial controller or financial manager in a financial institution, it would be possible to decide which method is perfect in benefiting the institution and avoiding credit risks while maintaining satisfaction of creditors (Kennon, 2013 ).

References

ASAP Credit Card. (2012). Methods for Calculating Interest Charges. Retrieved May 17, 2013, from asapcreditcard.com: HYPERLINK “Http://www.asapcreditcard.com/articles/interest-calculation-” Http://www.asapcreditcard.com/articles/interest-calculation-methods.html

Kennon, J. (2013 ). The Power of Compound Interest: How Compound Interest Can Make You Rich Through Sound Investments. Retrieved May 17, 2013 , from About.com Guide: HYPERLINK “Http://beginnersinvest.about.com/od/savingsanddebtmanagement/a/compound-” Http://beginnersinvest.about.com/od/savingsanddebtmanagement/a/compound-interest.htm

Alexander Fleming (Penicillin) Discovery

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Introduction

The report is taking about antibiotics agents assume a real part in the field of medication today. Yet numerous don’t know of how they got started. All this was talking about Flemings Alexander’s success in penicillin. Who could’ve envisioned that something we utilize today all the time in healing centers, facilities, and private work places was found by shot? The discovery of anti-toxins was moderate, yet once it was truly given careful consideration to on the influence it could have, Antibiotics agents are presently something the world couldn’t manage without (Ghafur, 2010). Antibiotics are substance mixes, which are protected and compelling medications that treat bacterial contaminations. They can be isolated into two different gatherings, bactericidal and bacteriostatic. Bactericidal anti-toxins basically pulverize the micro-creatures they target, while bacteriostatic antibiotics don’t demolish the micro-life form yet keeps them from reproducing yet hindering their development and generation, empowering the resistant framework to conquer the irresistible microbes. The one thing that all the diverse sorts of Antibiotics have in like manner is their definition, which is an anti-microbial is a substance which is created by one kind of micro-living being which murders or stops the development of an alternate. Microscopic organisms devastating mixes can be found in a few plants, bugs and creatures of land and water. Anti-toxins are fundamentally all delivered from microorganisms, normally as microbes or growths, despite the fact that this is presently getting to be entangled in light of the fact that scientific experts can modify the structure of commonly discovered microscopic organisms to expand its adequacy. An illustration of regularly discovered microscopic organisms that has been changed (semi-manufactured microbes) is the Antibiotics penicillin. Penicillin is presently utilized worldwide for a wide range of bacterial contaminations. Along these lines this paper will be examining Alexander Fleming’s Discovery of Penicillin (Fisher et al,. 2011).

The problems

Penicillin proclaimed the beginning of the anti-toxin age. Prior to its presentation there was no powerful treatment for diseases, for example, pneumonia, gonorrhea or rheumatic fever. Clinics were loaded with individuals with blood harming contracted from a cut or a scratch, and specialists could do little for them however hold up and trust (Nugent & Okeke, 2010). Antibiotics are mixes delivered by microscopic organisms and growths which are equipped for slaughtering, or restraining, contending microbial species. This wonder has long been known; it may clarify why the old Egyptians had the act of applying a poultice of mildew covered bread to tainted wounds. Bacterial contaminations are getting to be more basic and have turned into a significant wellbeing risk to the populace. It will likewise turn into the greatest heath risk if nothing is carried out about anti-microbial safe microbes. Antibiotics are no more thought to be the super medication that they used to be just on the grounds that, despite the fact that the dominant part of microorganisms are decimated by an anti-microbial, all that’s needed is one anti-microbial safe bacterium to have a quality transformation that will empower it to survive and imitate with different germs (Nugent & Okeke, 2010). This safety would then be passed on to the Antibiotics. Microscopic organisms trade anti-microbial safe qualities by passing plasmids that contain the qualities, starting with one bacterium then onto the next. The hypothesis of Fleming was to determine if penicillin is able to treat all bacterial diseases.

Experiment

The narrow range of treatable diseases or “spectrum of activity” of the penicillins, alongside the poor movement of the orally dynamic phenoxymethyl penicillin, prompted the quest for subsidiaries of penicillin that could treat a more extensive scope of contaminations. The segregation of 6-APA, the core of penicillin, took into consideration the planning of semisynthetic penicillins, with different enhancements over benzylpenicillin (bioavailability, range, dependability, resistance). The main real advancement was ampicillin in 1961. It offered a more extensive range of action than both of the first penicillins (Ewers et al,. 2010). Further improvement yielded β-lactamase-safe penicillins, including flucloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and methicillin. These were critical for their movement against β-lactamase-creating bacterial species, however were incapable against the methicillin-safe Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains that hence rose. An alternate advancement of the line of genuine penicillins was the antipseudomonal penicillins, for example, carbenicillin, ticarcillin, and piperacillin, valuable for their movement against Gram-negative microscopic organisms. Notwithstanding, the handiness of the β-lactam ring was such that related antibiotics, including the mecillinams, the carbapenems and, most imperative, the cephalosporins, still hold it at the core of their structure.

Analysis and Theory

Antiseptics functioned admirably at first glance, yet profound wounds had a tendency to asylum anaerobic microbes from the sterile operators, and sterilizers appeared to evacuate useful specialists created that ensured the patients in these cases at any rate and in addition they evacuated microscopic organisms, and did nothing to uproot the microorganisms that were out of range. Sir Almroth Wright emphatically backed Fleming’s discoveries, yet notwithstanding this, most armed force doctors throughout the span of the war kept on using sterilizers even in situations where this compounded the state of the patients (Ewers et al,. 2010). Fleming’s incidental revelation and segregation of penicillin in September 1928 imprints the start of present day antibiotics. Fleming was the first to push these studies further by segregating the penicillin, and by being sufficiently propelled to advance his revelation at a bigger scale. Fleming additionally found early that microbes created anti-microbial safety at whatever point excessively little penicillin was utilized or when it was utilized for excessively short a period. Fleming forewarn about the utilization of penicillin in his numerous addresses around the globe. He forewarn not to utilize penicillin unless there was a legitimately diagnosed purpose behind it to be utilized, and that in the event that it were utilized, never to utilize excessively little, or for excessively short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial imperviousness to antibiotics creates.Effect of discovery

Antibiotics agents that have been found through the headway of penicillin are ampicillin, flucloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and methicillin. Tragically these anti-toxins are not compelling against methicillin-safe strains of Staphylococcus aureus. An alternate advancement of Antibiotics agents incorporates mecillinams, carbapenams, and one of these most imperative cephalosporins. Penicillins were the world’s first anti-toxins found and delivered from the microscopic organisms’ penicillium. Today there are no less than 20 separate sorts of penicillin being utilized to treat assorted types of infections, contaminations, and wounds. Through the years, there have been numerous more anti-toxins found in any case, penicillin is still the anti-microbial of decision when managing bacterial diseases. Penicillins are regularly used to treat anything from a straightforward ear contamination to a sexually transmitted malady (Nugent & Okeke, 2010). Without Sir Alexander Fleming, who was knighted alongside Howard Florey in 1944, and his “mishap” the therapeutic world as we know it today would turn out to be much distinctive?

Reflection

His discovery of penicillin had changed the universe of cutting edge prescription by presenting the time of valuable antibiotics; penicillin has spared, is as yet sparing, a large number of individuals as far and wide as possible.

References

Ghafur, A. K. (2010). An obituary—on the death of antibiotics. J Assoc Physician India, 58(3), 143-144.

Henk, D. A., Eagle, C. E., Brown, K., Van den Berg, M. A., Dyer, P. S., Peterson, S. W., & Fisher, M. C. (2011). Speciation despite globally overlapping distributions in Penicillium chrysogenum: the population genetics of Alexander Fleming’s lucky fungus. Molecular ecology, 20(20), 4288-4301.

Nugent, R., & Okeke, I. N. (2010). When medicines fail: recommendations for curbing antibiotic resistance. J Infect Dev Ctries, 4(6), 355-356.

Poeschl, P. W., Spusta, L., Russmueller, G., Seemann, R., Hirschl, A., Poeschl, E., … & Ewers, R. (2010). Antibiotic susceptibility and resistance of the odontogenic microbiological spectrum and its clinical impact on severe deep space head and neck infections. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology, 110(2), 151-156.

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Aliens can be defined as a person or a form of life whose origin is not from Earth. However, it can also mean a person who is not a resident of a particular country in law. The acronym UFO stands for unidentified flying object which means any object that is cannot be identified that is flying in the sky. The UFO is an object that cannot be easily identified by any technology like radar. The term UFO was created by the US Air force. The alien forms of life vary and can range from small organisms to complex beings than humans. The alien life has captured the attention of man in recent times with many researches, documentaries and movies produced about the alien life.

Some scientists have predicted that there is life beyond earth using various scientific models and hypothesis. As a result, various scientists have been looking for planets that can support life in the universe with some planets said to contain favorable environments for supporting life. Jupiter’s moon the Europa was discovered to contain a surface that can be suitable for cellular organisms. This further fueled the possibility of extraterrestrial life.

The idea of extraterrestrial life began during the ancient days after the invention of telescope when it became clear that the Earth was one planet among numerous bodies in the solar system. The ancient scientists believed that there were other planets, which had life, just like Earth. Many ancient cultural tales had the idea of existence of numerous worlds which were inhabited by intelligent human life forms. These myths also considered the sun and the moon to be inhabited by other beings. Extraterrestrial life would also be depicted by chariots driven by gods. Some of the myths told stories of the people from the moon, normally a beautiful princess either visiting or going to the moon from the other. However, these tales were mythical with no evidence at all about the solar system.

There have been many fictional stories and conspiracy theories of aliens visiting or invading the earth. Many movies have been produced showing aliens invading the earth and threatening humans. Alien life has become part of the pop culture and the entertainment industry but accorded no seriousness at all. The alien story has become more fictional than scientific. The pop culture considers aliens as fictional stories and very good storylines for movies produced in Area 51. The movies, The Day the Earth Stood still, is fictional with exaggerated abilities of aliens who threaten the existence of the earth. The fictional stories about aliens in the entertainment industry show how the public treats with contempt the story of aliens. Most people do not believe in the existence of aliens but see it to be fictional and something less serious.

There are however, a lot of people in the world who believe that the earth must have been visited by aliens. This group of people believes that the UFOs such as flying saucers that have been witnessed must have come from some form of extraterrestrial life. There have been reports of UFOs seen across the skies in many parts of the world. This has also been disputed by a section of people who believe that the UFOs are common objects that are being carried by the wind. This group believes relying on physical eyesight of the UFOs as evidence of Alien invasion is inappropriate. Common objects like balloons, meteors, mirages and unusual looking clouds have been previously mistaken as UFOs. This situation has also been worsened by unsuccessful researches on the UFOs carried out by different governments. Therefore solely relying on the UFOs as an evidence of alien presence is wrong and foolhardy. Substantive evidence need to be produced to prove the existence of the aliens other than the UFOs.

A group of scientist believes that the presence of water in other planets is a sign of life in these planets and therefore extraterrestrial life can be supported in these planets. For instance, liquid water is believed to be present beneath the surfaces of Mars. Europa, which is a moon of Jupiter, appears to have oceans. Saturn’s moons also appear to be watery. Moreover, Venus appears to have liquid water. The presence of liquid water in these planets has fuelled the speculation that they must be extrasolar planets that can support life. The presence of liquid water alone is not an evidence of aliens’ presence in these planets. More proof is needed if the alien presence is to be believed.

Another argument to support the presence of aliens in the universe is the evolution of the Earth that seems to have happened so quickly. Scientists discovered evidence of the earliest form of life to be a certain bacteria type believed to have lived 3.4 billion year ago. These scientists believe that these bacteria must have also evolved from another form of life earlier before on earth. The quick evolution of life on Earth must have taken place in other planets according to the scientists. This therefore means evolution must have occurred in other planets such that they can support life too.

However, all the arguments are rather speculative than factual. The scientists seem to hypothesize the presence of extraterrestrial life without proper evidence to support they claim. For now, the evidence supporting this claim is insufficient and doubtable. Personally am not convinced of the presence of aliens in the universe unless there are fresh claims to prove so.

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Everlast Energy Mints

Introduction

Environmental protection needs to be at the center stage of economic productivity in order to attain sustainability. In light of economic production, sustainability is attained by various measures. These include reducing waste production through the use of green approaches such as recycling, re using, reducing and so forth. The process of valuing environmental products also needs to put in consideration the actual value of the respective environmental goods. It can not be disputed that market trends have had far reaching implications on the holistic wellbeing of the environment. In this regard, they accord important environmental goods a lower value than that of the actual value. This can be used to explain why the relative products continue to be over exploited to the point of depletion. Furthermore, this has culminated in environmental degradation that stems from pollution. It is against this background that this paper reviews the processes that are employed in producing Everlast Energy Mints. This is in a bid to underscore the environmental implications of the processes and measures that can be undertaken to mainstream sustainability in these.

The energy mints produced by the company include Foosh energy mints and Buzz bites energy mints. The objective for this production was to provide busy consumers with cheap alternatives to other caffeinated products. The fact that the products are potable and can be purchased easily saves time and resources that could have otherwise been employed for getting coffee. The Foosh Energy Mints have various blends of ingredients employed for producing energy such as taurine, ginseng, five different vitamin B and caffeine. These are useful in increasing endurance, stimulating the metabolism of the consumer and generally rejuvenating oneself. The target consumers for this product include drivers, sports enthusiasts and students. Likewise, Buzz Bites contain taurine, ginseng, vitamin B, chocolate and caffeine. They work in similar way like the Foosh Energy Mints. In addition to these basic ingredients, Buzz bites also contain sweetened and condensed skim milk, corn syrup, part hydrogenated coconut oil, water, unsweetened chocolate, salt, natural and artificial flavors and calcium caseinate.

Notably, the products have various ingredients that are drawn form different sources. This implies that more natural resources are derived from the environment to manufacture the products. In this regard, it is worth noting that a significant amount of energy is used in deriving the respective products. Since fossil fuels are in most instances employed for running the relative machines, this implies that a higher volume of green house gases are released in the atmosphere from the process. According to Diamond, the wastes that are produced during this initial stage come from different sources and are more than the market value of the product (361). Objective valuation of the environmental goods employed in the production of every piece of the energy mints is comparatively higher than the actual market price that the product has been accorded. This has massive negative implications on the wellbeing of the environment. According to Diamond, the environmental losses that are experienced are more than the human gain or benefit that is derived from the product (361).

The production process of the products is also involving and requires use of various machines. Likewise, fossil fuels are employed in running the machines during production. The fossil fuels are also derived from the environment and the green house gases that they emit greatly affect the wellbeing of the environment. In particular, pollution leads to loss of biological diversity that cushions the human race against the negative implications that are associated with drastic environmental changes. Furthermore, pollution degrades the environment and undermines its ability to uphold positive and quality production. This has adverse implications on the populations that depend solely on the environment for their sustenance (362). In this regard, it should be acknowledged that negative environmental impacts are trans-boundary and affect the entire global race. Moreover, over exploitation of these resources in some instances deplete the respective resources. The practice in this regard is detrimental because it denies the future populations and generations of a chance to share in the natural resource base. In this regard, it is worth appreciating that the concept of sustainability requires the needs of the current populations to be catered for without compromising the diverse needs of the future generations. Exploitation in this regard needs to be moderated and put in line with the established environmental regulations.

The process of manufacturing the product requires employment of human labor to not only run the machines but to also perform other forms of manual labor such as packaging. The health of humanity is directly depended on environmental health. Arguably, environmental destruction that is associated with the production of green house gases compromises the availability of labor to be employed in production. This is due to the fact that it puts human health at stake. The wastes that emanate from the process of production such as waste water and other forms of solid wastes are disposed in the environment accordingly. In some instances, these are recycled in order to reduce environmental exploitation. Compared to using new resources, recycling is cost effective and sustainable. It not only saves the resources but also reduces the costs that are incurred during waste disposal. For instance, the waste water that is used in cleaning can be later employed for cooling and treated to be used for irrigation. The company needs to consider employing these approaches to address the mentioned problems.

In the Czech Dream film, the attitudes of populations are presented to be market oriented. The decisions that are made by the respective individuals are market based and greatly influenced by the relative trends. Likewise, the decisions, goals and objectives that are made by the company manufacturing this product are greatly influenced by market trends. For instance, advertising of the product is done online and in business journals and documentaries. Pursuit of this also requires high amounts of energy that are derived from environmental resources. According to Patel, relative costs are hardly factored in the price of the products (47). The undervaluing of important environmental resources in this regard is based on the fact that the environment is a common resource that all individuals need to benefit from. Continued exploitation of the environmental resources culminates in massive losses that undermine the health of both the human as well as those of the environment.

The ingredients of the products are also solely based on the needs of the clients as opposed to the environmental concerns. In this regard, the inclusion of various ingredients that are derived from different environmental resources is informed by the need to satisfy the needs of the consumer base. Specifically, the main aim is to provide energy needs for busy individuals who do not have time to take caffeine. The pricing of the products is also based on market trend and does not reflect the environmental value. Undue emphasis on the market factors has made it difficult for the companies to review its production process. The profit oriented motive has culminated in increased environmental pollution. Certainly, economic production is furthered at the expense of environmental protection. In this regard, it is important for the organization to include the cots of environmental goods in the price of the product.

The packaging material employed by this company is not biodegradable. This implies that further pollution is experienced after the products have been consumed accordingly. Statistical evidence indicates that although most populations are becoming conversant with environmental protection, not all of them assume environmentally friendly practices. Therefore, it can not be disputed that pollution is further experienced after the products have been consumed. In this respect, the company needs to embark on awareness creation of the consumer base in order to counter the abovementioned negative impacts.

The social aspect of the environment is equally important because of the direct impacts that it has on the wellbeing of humanity. Release of green house gases in the environment and environmental pollution culminates in environmental degradation. As aforementioned, this denies the poor populations of a chance to benefit from the natural resource base. Directly, this increases their susceptibility to environmental disasters and leads to poverty. From an ethical point of view, this is unacceptable because it culminate sin immense suffering. Further, the relative resource based conflicts that are caused by dwindling resources lead to deaths and undermine the quality of life of the populations that depend on the particular resources for survival. The preceding social problems can be addressed by moderating resource exploitation and curbing environmental pollution and degradation.

At this point, it is certain that the Foundations of Management and Entrepreneurship course has played a leading role in empowering both students and communities in different ways. The relative establishment and liquidation of a business is instrumental in exposing the students to first hand information regarding the concepts of business management and entrepreneurship. This triggers the art of creative and critical thinking that is important for decision making in the current corporate environment. Economic empowerment of communities that benefit from the businesses is ethical and morally acceptable. It is a classic illustration of corporate social responsibility that requires all stakeholders to actively participate in the administration of a business entity.

The involvement in the management of the businesses also allows the students to establish viable business as well as social networks with other organizations. In the current complex and dynamic corporate environment, experience is of paramount importance in sharpening the skills. The experience also slows the students to practice theoretical knowledge in the field. Coupled with the opportunities for networking, this allows the students to be conversant with the dynamics of the management profession before entering the field. Certainly the course is well structures and gives its students a unique opportunity to gain knowledge and skills through practical experience. However, to attain optimal results, students should be allowed to benefit from the profits of the businesses. From a psychological point of view, this would go a long way in enhancing sustainability of the education experience. This is attributable to the ‘ownership’ feeling that characterizes this experience.

Works Cited

Czech Dream. Dir. Vit Klusak and Filip Remunda. ARTE, 2004.

Diamond Jared. Collapse: How Societies Choose to fail or Succeed. USA: Viking Adult, 2004. Print.

Patel Raj. The Value of Nothing: How to Reshape Market Society and Redefine Democracy. USA: Picador, 2010. Print.

Evidence Based Practice in community corrections: factors to consider when determining the best program/practice in community corrections

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Introduction

In the past years, community corrections have continuously suffered from lack of information of reducing offender recidivism. Investigations conducted estimates that US corrections represent 25% of world’s prison population. These corrections currently holds over two million offenders. The costs of mass corrections in socio-economic terms have aroused legislative and scholarly concern. For instance, those convicted for long sentences pose collateral consequences such as failure to participate in fully in civic rights such as voting or employment. Further costs are those which involve operating the correction facilities. Several strategies such as cost-benefit analysis, specific clinical trials amongst others have reliably produced sustainable reductions in offender recidivism (Klingele, 2013). This paper highlights factors to consider when determining the best program in community corrections

Establishing best program in community corrections

The knowledge of the evidence based practice (EBP) is insufficient to enhance or even sustain a new way of running correction facilities. Therefore, agencies and systems should establish ways to adjust their organizational culture. Collaborations between the National Institute of corrections, Crime and Justice Institute and other partners developed an Integrated Model to facilitate effective implementation of evidence based practices in correction facilities. The model incorporates three components namely a) evidence based practice b) organizational development and c) collaboration between other components (Guevara & Solomon, 2009).

Various principles have been developed to determine the best program which should be applied in community corrections. However, aligning these principles with programs of correctional facilities face challenges hence requires careful planning. Most of the interventions do interlock and have a direct impact on recidivism. One of the factors that should be considered in establishing effective EBP is the actuarial risk assessment. The EBP should comprise a screening system with sufficiently and accurately written procedures, and focuses on dynamic and static risk factors and profile criminogenic needs. Staff should be well trained to administer the system in order to assess the offenders for effective management (Marie, 2008).

In addition correction officers and program staff should be equipped with motivational interviewing techniques. This will not only ensure that offenders and staff relate interpersonally, but also in sensitive constructive manner, thereby enhancing intrinsic motivation. Change of behavior is dynamic and is usually influenced by interpersonal relations with corrections officers and other institutional. Researches strongly embrace motivational interviewing principle over persuasion tactics for effective behavioral changes which is sustainable. Another factor to be considered for EBP involves skill train complimented with directed practice. This involves use of cognitive behavioral treatment techniques for successful EBP in community corrections. Staff should be trained to recognize the appropriate communication technique to use to offenders. Additionally, skills taught to the offender should be role-played to reinforce the resulting pro-social attitudes. Therefore, correctional facilities should prioritize and budget for such programs which have been scientifically been proven to significantly reduce recidivism (Marie, 2008).

Positive reinforcement tactic is another factor that should be considered before adopting any EBP. Human beings are known to respond better to maintain taught skill or even behavioral changes for a longer period of time when rewarded rather than when reproached. Behaviorists have encouraged for higher ratio of positive rather than negative reinforcement in order to achieve sustainable behavioral changes. However, this should not be done at the expense unacceptable behavior. Realigning the offender and regular pro-socio supports form their community is also very effective factor to modify behaviors. Therefore, community supports for offenders should be integrated in case planning in order to improve bonds and ties to pro-social community members. Regular assessment and documentation on behavior changes by the offender change should be conducted. Additionally, correction staff should be assessed in order to evaluate performance, and achieve greater conformity for interventions design and principles delivery. Once a technique to assess relevant processes has been achieved, the interventions should be monitored to indicate the feedback. Routine audits, regular case reviews and maintaining the staff focused on ultimate goal of reduced recidivism is very essential factor in establishing the best evidence based practice. This in turn builds accountability and maintains integrity, resulting to motivation for change and overall improved outcomes (Marie, 2008).

Other factor includes a) risk principle b) need principle c) responsibility principle and d) treatment principle. Other factors which should be considered for an efficient EBP includes a) identifying the goal (common vision) of the evidence based practice. The problem should be well outlined and the tasks involved well articulated to mutually achieve beneficial outcome. Strategies should be established for achieving the vision through having everyone engaged in order to find a common ground b) the purpose of the EBP is should be defined. The styles of leadership dictate the accomplishment of the interventions in corrections facilities. For instance, Coercive leadership requires immediate compliance whilst the authoritative leadership will mobilize individuals toward the set goal. Afflictive leaders develop harmonic and emotional bonds whilst democratic leadership demands consensus through participation. Pacesetting leadership requires excellence and self-direction whereas coaching leaders tends to develop for the future. Most successful EBP relies on multi- leadership styles (Guevara & Solomon, 2009).

All groups involved in developing the EBP should have agreement regarding strategies to achieve the attainable goals c) the roles and responsibility of each partner should be identified in order to bring effective collaborations d) principles should be defined focusing on strengths in order to acknowledge and validate ideas e) lastly, open and frequent communication between parties involved which strengthens the collaborative team bonds (Guevara & Solomon, 2009).

The EBP forms the foundation for effective service provisions and supervisions. The correction facilities should establish their missions and goals. They should also search for new knowledge and skill which will facilitate in adjusting their infrastructure to support the changes in running the correctional facilities. EBP involves a) developing corrections staff skills, attitudes and knowledge b) Implementing offender programming c) monitoring corrections staff actions and offenders programming to compare discrepancies d) attainability of verifiable outcome associated with the interventions. Embracing the integrated Model results to numerous rewards including a) efficient resource mobilization and utilization b) fosters responsible practices c) promotes accountability c)creates a learning environment for both corrections staff and offenders (Guevara & Solomon, 2009).

Rational used to determine best evidence based practice

University of Maryland Scientific methods score system is one of the rational used to assess the feasibility of evidence based practice. It is a scoring system which reveals on EBP which works and those which does not. The scoring is done from “1” to “5”. 1 is the least score and 5 being the strongest and maximum score. Another rationale that can be used to determine the best EBP is a meta-analysis. This is a systematic review which summarizes, integrates and interprets sets of scholarly research. This approach is best because it facilitates the researchers to aggregate the enormous empirical studies, enabling them to compare and examine the effect of the interventions. The scientific technique applies statistics as a unit of analysis (Hager and Johnsson, 2009).

Conclusion

Prison populations have terrifically increased nationally, making corrections take the larger proportions of local and state budgets. Therefore, it is jurisdictions role to determine whether the funds are wisely spent by focusing on correctional interventions adopted, their effectiveness or impact on later criminal behavior. In particular, there are concerns as to whether Correctional planning based on scientific interventions are effective in changing offenders

Evidently, the core components of an evidence based practice determine the impact the program has on sustaining reductions on recidivism. The framework of principles and factors discussed above should be operationalized by the individual case, agency and system involved. At these three levels, a comprehensive and strategic planning is required in order to succeed. The planning involves a) identifying b) prioritizing and c) formulating well- timed programs by addressing the issues and tasks which require system collaboration. Additionally, the aforementioned principles should be reflected in interventions policies and daily routine of correction agencies. The success of the EBP relies on the equilibrium between interventions and the enforcement. However, the principle cannot be put in place immediately. Therefore, each organization has a role to determine its pace of implementation appropriate to its resource availability and readiness. The implementation also requires huge investment in terms of people, time and finance.

References

Guevara, M., & Solomon, E., (2009) Implementing evidence based policy and practice in community corrections. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://static.nicic.gov/Library/024107.pdf” http://static.nicic.gov/Library/024107.pdf

Hager, P., & Johnsson, M, C., (2009) Working outside the comfort of competence in corrections centre: toward collective competence. Human Resource Development international Vol.12 (5)

Klingele, C., (2013) Criminal law: rethinking the use of community supervisions. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Vol. 103 (4)

Marie, M., (2008) Implementing evidence based practice in community corrections: the principle of effective interventions. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&noj=1&q=+Implementing+evidence+based+practice+in+community+corrections&oq=+Implementing+evidence+based+practice+in+community+corrections&gs_l=serp.12..35i39j0j0i22i30l8.39232.56406.0.61608.38.35.0.0.0.1.549.4676.6j13j4j3j0j1.27.0….0…1c.1.35.serp..28.10.1609.kjWapqDGi7E#

Social theory, social change in health and social care

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EVERY CHILD MATTERS AND FEMINIST THEORY

Introduction:

The aim of this essay is to explore the background of Every child matters and its relationship and Applications to the physical abuse of children, relationship and application towards children services in context with social change, Critical analysis of legislative policies and changes in relation to Every Child Matters, Critical analysis of Every Child matter its aims, objectives and Applications of feminist theory on every child matter.

First of all this essay will highlight the emergence of Every child Matters in context with children abuse and will present a picture relating to the abuse and deaths of children, inquiry report that resulted Every Child Matters.

There are different kinds of physical abuse such as shaking, kicking and punching , also any pain or injury to a child is classified as an abuse. Any harmful substance such as alcohol or poison given by parents or carers that results in illness is also consider as an abuse.(NSPCC, 2009)

Neglect, physical injury, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and grave concern are five categories of child abuse.(Varma, 1997)

Wilson & James (2002) cited (Hallett & Birchall, 1992) that up until the mid1980s, the 30 plus inquires had all been linked with the deaths of children at the hands of their parents or carers. As a result of physical abuse or neglect all the children had died and had often suffered emotional abuse and failure to thrive. The child care professionals, especially social workers, failed to protect the children from terrible consequences. The deaths were viewed as particular instances and brought about some changes in the policy, practice, knowledge and skills and the way system operated and interrelated. (Wilson & James, 2002)

“It is difficult to predict the chances of family violence as some people in the family resort to violence inconsistently while others may do so consistently but only under extreme stress. However, studies on the causes of family violence have identified factors that are usually present when aggressive incidents and violent interactions occur”. (Brown & Herbert, 1997, pp.19-20)

Laming(2003) has described in his report Victoria as a black child born on the Ivory coast and given into the care of her auntie by her parents for better life in UK. In 1999 she arrived from Paris in the UK. First she stayed in Acton and later moved to Harlesden. By May 1999 there was evidence to suggest Victoria was already suffering from neglect. Within two months of arrival other people noticed injuries on Victoria. Later on one of her auntie friend rang social service twice. However, Victoria’s first visit to hospital occurred when she visited to the Middlesex central Hospital on the 14TH of July where she was seen for injuries which were later described to be non accidental. She was referred to a pediatric register who recorded that Victoria had numerous injuries, Brent Social services were informed and she was discharge; a week later she was taken back to the same hospital where she spent 13 nights in the pediatric ward. On her third visit to hospital on February25th 2000 Victoria was declared dead at the age of eight years and three months. (Laming, 2003)

Maguire (2009) says that Lord Laming was given great autonomy in shaping the nature of the inquiry and decided early on it should be public inquiry. However, the inquiry report was published in January 2003 and consisted of over 400 pages and made 108 recommendations for changes to the system for safeguarding children.(Maguire, 2009)

Wilson & James (2007) noted that The Green Paper was obviously a response to the Laming Report and basically was linked with inquiry report into death of Victoria Climbie as represented by the media. (Wilson & James, 2007)

Lonne et al (2009) says due to the tragic death of Victoria Climbie in London in 2000 policy and practice have been changed. (Lonne et al, 2009).

“The political momentum for the changes being introduced in England was considerably strengthened by the government being seen to be actively responding to the public inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie, the government also took the opportunity to introduce wide-ranging and radical reform which was only tangentially concerned with responding to child abuse”.( Wilson & James ,2007:9)

Labour published a consultation paper, known in the UK as Green Paper, given the title ‘Every child matters’ (HM Government, 2003) in coincidence with the government’s response to the inquiry report into the death of Victoria Climbie, a young girl murdered after a prolonged period of abuse. The purpose of The Green Paper was based on four important facts increase focus on supporting families and carers who has the most crucial control on children’s lives, to make sure that essential intervention takes place before children reach crisis point and protecting children from falling into a victim, to deal with the original issues identified in the report into the death of Victoria Climbie such as weak responsibility and poor integration , to make sure that the people working with children are respected, better paid and skilled.(Dowler & Spencer, 2007)

Critical analysis of legislative policies and changes in relation to Every Child Matters:

This essay will look into the legislative policies and changes in child protection in the light of social change theory. For this purpose the essay will look into the history of changes in legislative policies in child protection in context with Every Child Matters.

Butler& Drakefield (2003) says that The 1989 Children Act brought together most of the law relating to child protection In England and Wales in a single piece of legislation (Butler& Drakefield, 2003)

Maguire (2009) says that children Act 1989 introduced the welfare and principles in improving and developing the child protection system. (Maguire, 2009)

Although, few main points of The Children Act 1989 makes clear that the child’s welfare should be the supreme reflection in all court proceedings. However, Safety of children is ongoing issue that makes the government to think, revise and improve policies and legislation such as improvement of children Act 1989. Safeguarding is a relatively new term which is broader than ‘child protection’ as it also includes prevention. (Safeguarding Children, 2009).

The 1989 Children Act has been seen as partly improved the position of children in society, due to the lack of sufficient resources for the services that deal with children to enable all its aims to be achieved, for example, continuing delays in court proceedings have undermined the meeting of children’s and families needs in many cases. As will be seen later, the 2004 Children Act has further developed legislation in respect of children, especially for their protection i.e. the safeguarding of their welfare (Barker, 2009)

Wilson & James (2007) cited (Thorpe 1994, DoH 1995a, Parton et al.1997) that during the early 1990s, a number of studies carried out in the UK, the USA and Australia, which showed that the child welfare agencies had been dealing with remarkable increases in allegations of child abuse and neglect. However, the publication research (DOH 1995 a) summarised 20 studies and recognized that despite the intentions of the children act 1989 there had been little progress in moving towards a more needs-led approach to safe guarding children.( Wilson & James ,2007)

Every Child Matters: Change for Children provides an information how the new Children Act 2004 forms the basis of a long-term changes and give details of the implications for various services. (DfES, 2003)

There is no similarity between the children Act 2004 and the children Act 1989, it only brings in the improvement in the legislation and policies many of them recommended by Lord Laming. (Beckett, 2007)

The Green Paper encouraged a general debate about services for children, young people and families. Following consultation with people working in children’s services, with parents and young people, as subsequent result the Government published Every Child Matters: Next steps (DfES, 2004a) and passed the 2004 Children Act. However, due to political delegation, there is a range of different policy, legal and guidance documents that communicate to the changing context in which services to children are delivered in the in the four countries of the UK. (Barker, 2009)

The Children Act 2004 is the legislative backbone for the reforms supporting and focus on safeguarding children, with statutory Local Safeguarding Children Boards replacing the current Area Child Protection Committees and impose a duty on all key agencies to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in partnership with Local Authorities working with other services through children’s trust arrangements to agree local priorities for improving services for children, young people and parents and imposes responsibility on Directors of Children’s Services Local Authorities appointing who will have responsibility for education and children’s social services and designating Lead Members (Councillors) to provide vision and momentum.(DfES,2003)

Critical analysis of Every Child matter its aims, objectives:

There is a long history in the UK for changes to services to children to be triggered in part by responses to the death of a child .However, The immediate catalyst of the introduction of ECM was the response to tragic death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 (Laming, 2003), although changes in service were being planned in any event so it is not entirely accurate to say that her death ’caused’ the ECM programme. (Barker, 2009:8)

ECM was published as a Green Paper (DfES, 2003) in conjunction with the Laming Report (Laming, 2003). The government suggested that ECM was built on existing plans to support preventative services. (DfES, 2003)

Two important factors for the Every Child Matters: Change for Children programme was the Victoria Climbie Inquiry and the Joint Chief Inspectors Report on Safeguarding Children. (DFES, 2004)

Staying safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and to achieve economic well being is government four key points program for every child, regardless of their background or circumstances. However, organizations concerned with providing services for children, from hospitals and schools, to police and voluntary groups will be teaming up in latest ways of sharing information and working together, to protect children and young people from harm and help them achieve what they want in life. (DfES, 2004b)

Government in general started ECM programme and the main idea was that local needs should be met via ‘what works best’ locally. However, this idea means that different areas will be developing differently depending on local needs and local influences, such as the shifting impact and power of individuals and agencies in different areas. (Barker, 2009)

Every Child Matters: Change for Children sets out the national framework for local change program to build services around the needs of children and young people to make the most of chance and reduce risk. (DFES, 2004)

Barker & Hodes(2007) describes that it is vital that public sector workers in every service and within all agencies work together to make sure that the child is safeguarded, and the services for children and their families are well harmonized. Only possibility to protect children efficiently if all health service workers are dedicated to work jointly with other as a part of multi-agency as well as a multi disciplinary team. (Barker & Hodes, 2007)

Jowitt & O’Loughlin (2005) summarized that protection system failed for Victoria Climbie and other children in the past by many of safe guarding professionals agencies involved in working with her and her family. Furthermore, her death inquiry into her death and ors report from joint chief inspectors on safe guarding children (DOH, 2003b) made Government to change the 2004 Children Act and the Every Child Matters programmers. However, the important messages highlighted in these publications were protecting and promoting welfare of children. However, the centre of attention should only be a child and all agencies involved should work together. (Jowitt & O’Loughlin, 2005)

Basically ECM agenda was led by DfES but other department including DoH, DCMS and the Home Office were also involved. The main objective of ECM was to produce better joined up thinking and action between some of these departments, which thus has confused ECM agenda. However, there are clear indications that government has realized the importance of tackling this issue in a way by giving priority to children’s agenda and change as taken place by the reorganization of DfES into DCSF. (Barker, 2009)

A five-year programme entitled quality protect (April 1999 to March 2004) expected to improve the management and delivery of children’s social services, progress in increasing the number of adoptions. In addition, the Quality Protects programme developed a better perspective of the shared parenting role and to improve the collection and use of management information, and to make sure children and young people are better listened by councils. (DfES, 2004)

The agenda of improving services for children that is being progressed Via ECM programme is a challenging one and stresses on interagency, multi agency collaboration and multi professional approach when working in children services and it is very important for those who involved should have a clear idea about the roles of different professionals involved. (Barker, 2009)

The change required to beat the difficulties in prevention can only be delivered through local leaders working together in strong partnership with local communities on a programme of change. (DfES, 2004)

Barker(2009) cited (Hartley and Alison, 2006, p32) that ‘Innovation cannot be pre-specified and therefore part of the role of leadership is to provide a frame work and to observe , nurture, shape and reflect as well as to implement’.(Barker, 2009:193)

Practitioners use a shared assessment tool called The Common Assessment Framework (CAF) to develop a shared understanding of child needs. (DfES, 2006c)

Lonne et al(2009) notes that when the lic inquiry into the terrible death of Victoria Climbie was announced, at the same time new ‘Working Together’ and ‘Assessment Framework’ were being introduced.(Lonne et al , 2009)

ECM agenda has also introduced the role of lead professionals (LP) together with CAF for working with children , in order to enhance planned and effective interventions for the range of professionals and agencies concerned with the child’s life.(DCSF, 2007a)

Corby(2000) summaries that short-term assessment and decision making in child protection work indicates to a different approach being adopted depending on whether the subject inquiry is a case of physical or sexual abuse. However, short term assessment focuses on the parents and decision making on children. In the case of physical abuse and neglect, there is a little evidence of use of research findings in carrying out assessments, and some evidence to suggest that this is justified.(Corby, 2000).

Applications of feminist theory on every child matter:

This essay will highlight the application of feminist theory on Every Child Matters and will focus on different feminist theories and will relate one of the theories relating to ECM agenda.

Feminist is an important provider to critical practice theory because Feminist viewpoint on social wok spotlight on explaining and responding to the demoralized position of women in most societies due to men dominant societies. However, feminism has industrialized perceptions to explain inequalities between genders. In additition, various feminist theories such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, socialist or Marxist feminism, black feminism and postmodern feminism has developed view point to explain in equalities. (Payne, 2005)

Two systems theories entail a combination of Marxist-feminist and radical feminist ideas, identifying the effect of both capitalism and patriarch as tools of women’s subjugation. Most emphasis on a tendency to use a version of patriarchy rooted in marriage and the family, rather than in sexuality and violence.(Jones, 2003)

Payne (2005) cited Callahan (1996) focuses on the following:

Women experience of is a central aspect of understanding work with children, family and female role within them are crucial elements of child care, relationship need to be constructed to see the connection between private relationship, between spouses and between women and children , interact with definitions of what considered appropriate and then enforced in family relationship.(Payne, 2005)

Payne (2005) says that feminist theory had a most important effect in changing and thinking about roles of genders and relationships mainly relating to social policy and welfare services as applied to ECM agenda. However, it has contributed a dialogical practice and equal relations and group empowerment that have a significant impact on critical and empowerment practice. (Payne, 2005)

For many radical feminists the woman’s world is enclosed within the prospect of real or possible violence by men. (Jones, 2003)

Payne (2005) cited Domeinelli feminist social practice children and families as patriarchal families in which man is regarded as a leading partner and sees child welfare as positive and preventive, rather than protection, resulting in physical abuse to children and domestic violence to women as men are dominant figures.(Payne, 2005)

Patriarchy means the power of men over women and for radical feminist it is a system in which men oppress women. However, for radical feminists, patriarchy is the solution in understanding social structures and patriarchal relations are universal and fundamental.(Jones, 2003)

In practical theory is useful because it organizes and understands the variety and confusion and relationship and oppositions provide a context in which the can be assessed against one another and against the modern context in which they must be used. However, the question still exists which theory may be more effective in social work practice while working with children. (Payne, 2005)

Discussion:

This essay will critically discuss social policy, social change and social theory relating to ECM agenda.

Welfare and Well being of society can be improved via social policy and decides how support and care for disadvantaged people can be achieved. In addition, children can be educated, people can get free health care and the Government can take some measures to reduce poverty, homelessness and other social problems and inequalities.

(Kemshall, 2002)

The Victoria Climbie inquiry (Laming report 2003) clearly reveals how the failure to identify accurately a child in need of protection can have terrible consequences. This has resulted full frontal attack on the child protection system when what is needed is a strengthening of the preventative, legal and therapeutic options to support, rather than challenge or replace, and the child protection function .Furthermore, Child protection as we know it is no longer accepted term in central government guidance and the ensuing children act 2004 and working together guidance has resulted in No place for the established view of child protection, the language of safeguarding predominating, risk being deleted from social work vocabulary and No clear assessment structure existing to integrate the multiple structures in the existence. The number of new initiatives continuing in the absence of integration, evaluation or review(e.g. the Integrated Children system was introduced even before the Assessment Framework upon which it was built had been evaluated: similarly, the concept of children’s trusts was heralded post laming without any evolution of pilot projects. (Wilson & James, 2007)

‘More recently, uncritical acceptance of medical opinion by other professionals has been criticized in the cases of Victoria Climbie and Lauren Wright, whose deaths at the hands of their carers in London and Norfolk respectively were well publicized in the British media’. (Beckett, 2007:p12)

Three models of multi-agency working such as multi-agency panel, multi agency teams and integrated services, have been categorised in Every Child Matters: Change for Children (2007). In first model members are not permanently part of the panel, but identify with and remain employed by their home agencies. The panel has a chair or manager who is also employed by her home agency. The panel meets regularly. This model includes panels, networks and the ‘team around the child ’.In second model teams are permanent and has a team leader and a team identity. .This model includes teams such as Sure Start and behaviour support teams and in third model, the team is co-located, usually as part of a community-based service hub, providing interdisciplinary services to children and families. The team has a similar identity, viewpoint and objectives and is controlled as an interdisciplinary team. Examples of integrated services are family support services and children’s centre teams. Teams that now inhabit children’s services and which are continuing to develop. (DfES, 2007)

Bringing together of different services and shared decision-making have become important and most of the services in several key areas of multi professional work have arisen out of professional developments such as in hospital care, primary health care, social services, community social work, mental health community care and residential care. (Payne, 2000)

In sharp contrast to previous UK governments, the current administration has made women and children a key focus of policy. It has committed considerable resources to this policy agenda. However, there remains much to do if inequalities can be reduced and resources can be used effectively challenged and reduced. reduction of child poverty – a need to increase benefits and the minimum wage, probably by increasing social transfers; further improvement of parental leave provision to the best European levels; reduction in unwanted pregnancies, particularly in young and vulnerable women; improvement of maternal health, in particular promoting nutrition and reducing smoking and substance misuse; provision of affordable childcare for all parents including those on low (or no) incomes and promotion of family-friendly working practices and employment; provision of universal high-quality services such as those being developed through Sure Start, with targeting of increased resources to disadvantaged areas; simplification of child and family service provision by organisational change such as that proposed in Every child matters. Moreover, these changes should be underpinned by sufficient, continued and dedicated financial and other resources, international comparative research, with the aim of identifying key welfare, social and fiscal policies associated with better child health and well-being and reduction of inequalities.(Dowler et al, 2007)

Social changes can be promoted by social work profession, problem can be solved in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people can be enhanced. . By using theories of human behaviors and social system, social work intervenes at points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (IFSW, 2007)

Services for children can only be improved by better and more effective and joined up working and multi agency and inter professional working for both universal and targeted, specialist service for children.(Barker,2009:13)

Conclusions:

Deaths of helpless children have driven a essential agenda to improve child protection services in the UK. There is still an apprehension that these changes will not be enough to protect children due to great lack of staff and resources, mainly in social services child protection. To get better results from ECM agenda and to fill in the gaps and to overcome shortcomings in children services, there is a need of more high quality staff into children workforce, needs to strengthen inter agency and multidisciplinary working and promotion of stronger leadership and management that will result a great change in services for children. There is a need of spreading the awareness of child protection in order to promote community awareness and involve the wider society. However, in a society which still allows the corporal punishment of children and in which large number of children and families live in poverty

Finally, child protection system is disciplinary to anyone involved. It is difficult to establish a system that can completely control violence against children and sometimes make it uncertain and complicated in protecting a child. For the protection of children Via ECM agenda it is significant that there should be a proper assessment of the risk and a good collaboration between all the agencies concerned in decision making to eliminate the risks around the children.

List of Contents

1. Introduction 3

1.1 General Introduction 3

1.2 Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures 4

1.2.1 Why Medicago sativa? 4

1.2.2 Present Position 4

1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing Regions 5

1.2.4

1.2.5

1.2.6 Alfafa: A perennial legume

Improvement objectives for cultivar development

Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement 11

6

8

1.3 Problems related to a biotic and biotic management factors 12

1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity 12

1.3.2

1.3.3

1.3.4

1.3.5 Water Scarcity

Diseases 14

Insect pests 15

Nematodes 15 13

1.4 Mechanization 15

1.5 Agronomic Characters 16

1.5.1 Effects of salinity on physiologic parameters 16

1.6 Alfalfa’s Genetic Diversity 17

1.6.1 Genetic Mapping 17

1.7 Experimental Aims 24

2. Materials and Methods 19

2.1 Recordings and Observations 19

2.1.1 Agronomic Characters 20

2.1.2 Determination of Ionic concentration in plant tissues 20

2.1.3 Determination of phosphorus 20

2.1.4 Determination of total potassium, Na, Ca and M 21

2.1.5 Determination of Chloride 21

2.2 Molecular studies 22

2.2.1 SSR Analysis 22

2.2.2 Statistical Analysis 23

2.2.3 Phenotypic Data Analysis 23

2.2.4 Genomic DNA Extraction 23

2.2.5 Pre and Post Selective PCR 24

2.2.6 Fragment Analysis 24

2.2.7 Genetic Distance Estimates and Cluster Analysis 24

3. Results and Discussion 25

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4. Conclusions and Further work 25

4.1 Conclusions 25

4.2 Further work 25

5. References 26

6. Appendices 1. Introduction 1.1 General IntroductionIn Arid and semi arid lands, farmers depend solely on animal husbandry to cater for their livelihoods. In this regard, they practice large scale ranching in which they keep wide ranging livestock species. Limited rainfall greatly undermines their ability to explore other forms of farming effectively. For sustainable animal farming, they focus on plants that are highly productive. Certainly, forages of high digestibility and nutritive value enable them to reap optimally from these farming practices. This is at the core of their sustainable economic goals and objectives. Just like other farmers inhabiting arid and semi arid lands, farmers in Sultanate of Oman explore animal husbandry to sustain their livelihoods. This requires them to produce high quality forage for their animals in order to benefit optimally from the same. Alfalfa, scientifically, known as medicago sativa offers the best option for this. Michaud et al. (1988) stated that it is difficult to define precisely when and how alfalfa spread and reached various countries and areas. They explained that maritime trade was well developed in the eastern Mediterranean as early as 4000 B.C., which could have contributed to the spread of alfalfa and may have resulted in significant mixture of hybridization of ecotypes from widely separated regions.

Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian Gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties which resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region leading to the evolution of many unique local ecotypes of this crop. Relatively little use has been made of Middle Eastern alfalfa germplasm in formal breeding programs largely because variations among accessions from this region have not been systematically described or made widely available (Smith et al., 1995)

1.2 Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures1.2.1 Why Medicago sativa?

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), the Queen of forage crops, forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate. Every farmer desires to grow it at least in small pieces of land depending on his holding to feed his goats, cattle or camels. Alfalfa plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of the country. In this regard, it accounts for almost half of the agricultural output (by value). It is the best quality feed for livestock as well as horses, contributing significantly to the quality of animal products. Nationally, it ranks top amongst the agricultural crops and has an annual production of an estimated 8.1 US dollars. Alfalfa forage is produced (harvested) throughout the year but it is higher during winter and low in summer.

It is a remarkable crop in comparison with others. Alfalfa is recognized as the most widely adapted agronomic crop, effective source of biological nitrogen (N2) fixation, energy efficient- crop to grow, important source of protein yield/ha and attractive source of nectar for honeybees. In addition to being an excellent source of vitamins and minerals, it is important for improving soil tilth (Barnes et .al., 1984). It is believed that alfalfa originated in South Western Asia (near Iran) but related forms and species are found scattered over central Asia as far north as Siberia. It was carried from Iran to Arabian Gulf, the Mediterranean countries and finally into Europe, America and Australia by traders, invading armies, explorers and missionaries as a valuable source of feed for horses and other animals. Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region. Few authors consider Arabian Peninsula as secondary center of diversity.

1.2.2 Present PositionThe Sultanate of Oman, being the third largest country in the Arabian Peninsula, has 73670.59 ha of agricultural land under cultivation of which fruits occupy a significant 50.33 % followed by perennial fodders (22.03 %), vegetables (8.41 %) and field crops (19.23 %). The total production, however, is shared highest by perennial fodders (53.09 %) followed by fruits (27.16 %), vegetables (15.67 %) and grain crops (4.08 %) (MoA, 2010). The fodder demand in the Sultanate is mostly met by the local production of alfalfa and Rhodes grass.

Table 1. Area and distribution of alfalfa in Oman1 (1995 data)

Sl.No. Region Cultivated Area (ha) Area under alfalfa (ha) % of alfalfa area

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. South Batinah

North Batinah

Sharqiya

Al-Wasta

Dhofar

Muscat

Dhahira

Interior

Musandam 11678

20643

7537

13

2822

3377

9421

6897

796 2411

3190

787

3

66

623

1662

1009

15 20.65

15.45

10.44

23.08

2.34

18.45

17.64

14.63

1.88

Total — 63184 9766 15.46

1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate, as every farmer desires to grow it at least in small piece of land depending on his holding to feed his goat, sheep, cattle or camel, thus contributing about 11344 ha i.e. 15.40 percent of cultivated area (MAF, 1997). This feature seems to be common case throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It is grown widely in Batinah, Salalah plains, Interior and desert plains of Nejd. The region wise distribution cultivated area of alfalfa in the country is presented in Table 1.

1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing RegionsThe major alfalfa growing regions are North Batinah (3190 ha), South Batinah (2411 ha), Dhahira (1662 ha) and Interior (1009 ha), which together share 84.70% of total alfalfa area. Interestingly, of these major growing regions, South Batinah (20.65%) has highest percentage of its area in alfalfa followed by Dhahira (17.64%), North Batinah (15.45%) and Interior (14.63%).

The planting is usually done between November and January. The crop is cut first after about 60 to 70 days and then every 25-40 days up to 10-11 times in a year. Typical yield of green matter is about 40 t/ha/year. The national average green matter production and productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1997 is depicted in Table 2 (MAF, 1990-97).

Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1998

in Oman 1

Year Area (ha) Production

(‘000 t) Productivity (t/ha) Productivity (t/ha)/ cut

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998 9000.0

9021.0

9241.0

9240.0

11047.9

11302.5

11344.5

11344.5

11042.9 345.6

360.8

372.7

375.0

445.3

455.6

487.7

490.0

460.5 38.40 3.84

40.00 4.00

40.33 4.03

40.58 4.06

40.31 4.03

40.31 4.03

43.00 4.30

43.19 4.32

41.70 4.17

1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

1.2.4 Alfafa: A perennial legumeFrom the point of view of the farmers, Alfafa is a perennial legume that is affordable, yet of very high digestibility and nutritive value. This enables the farmers to explore it at affordable prices and be able to reap optimal yields ultimately. It is persistent in nature and upon harvesting, it’s quite voluminous. The fact that weather conditions have minimal effects on its productivity enables it to be transferred to different regions with ease. It’s well known for its idyllic persistence and adaptability in new regions.

Among the number of agro-ecotypes of Oman, perennial locals viz. Oman Interior local and Batinah local are popular as they are stand persistent owing to their adaptability to the normal practice of ground level cutting by the farmers. A number of landraces that have been differentiated over centuries have been recognized mainly on the basis of longevity. The variants of “Batini” type have an expected life span of 8-10 years in the Batinah but they perform poorly when grown in the mountains.

There are local strains in Hajar Mountains which are known to persist over ten years, but they fail when grown down in the coast, where “Qaryati” is popular. There are also distinct types grown in different regions like “Sharqiya” around Sur and “Omani” in Interior region. The strains in the South have been found distinct from those of North. In 1987-1988 IPGRI, previously IBPGR, collected 87 alfalfa landraces. The collection mission covered most of the area of Oman. Presently, 87 alfalfa accessions were conserved in ICARDA Gene Bank (Guarino, 1987; MAF, 1989). In addition, seven accessions of alfalfa have been conserved in National gene bank of USA

High productivity

Figure 1: Productivity of Alfalfa

Recent researches ascertain that Alfalfa can produce high yields as well as high quality forage. This is attributable to the inbreeding practices that have ensured production of high quality species. Relative scientific efforts are devotedly geared towards improving its yield and quality. Depending on the environmental conditions and type of soil, alfalfa yields a significant 50 to 100 tons of forage per hectare. Dry matter in such instances ranges from 12 to 19 tons per hectare. Compared to other forage plants, its productivity is relatively high.

1.2.5 Improvement objectives for cultivar development

The ultimate objective of any cultivar improvement program is the development of germplasm that will enhance production of the crop. Alfalfa use varies from production of green forage (fresh or stored) in intensive forage -animal production systems to a legume in pastures and ranges in extensive forage -animal systems. The goals of alfalfa breeding programs vary considerably, depending on the intended use of the germplasm under development. Nonetheless, there are some traits considered important by most alfalfa breeding programs.

Yield:

Alfalfa is valued for its ability to produce high yields of high-quality forage. Although alfalfa is used in pastures and ranges, most breeding programs attempt to develop cultivars that will perform well under intensive forage production systems. Most alfalfa breeders feel that a cultivar will not be economically successful unless it is adapted to intensive forage programs.

Genetic increases in alfalfa yield have been about 3% per decade (Elliot et al., 1972; Hill and Kalton, 1976). The total increase in yields obtained by farmers has been greater than this, but part of the increase must be attributed to better management and fertility practices. Separation of genetic from non-genetic increases is difficult because some of the total increase has been the result of cultivars better adapted to intensive management and high fertility.

Several reasons can be proposed for the lower rate of genetic improvement for yield in alfalfa than for the grain crops. Evans (1980) suggested that much of the improvement in seed yield was the result of shunting photosynthetic products to organs or plant tissues of greater economic value. This route has not been available to alfalfa breeders because the entire plant is of economic value. A second possible reason for the lower rate of progress is that alfalfa is perennial with multiple harvests per growing season. The perennial growth habits of alfalfa dictates that the same plot be observed for several years before selections are made. This increases the time per selection cycle, and under such conditions, an equal gain per cycle of selection would translate to a lower rate of gain for a given time period. A third reason for the lower rate of progress in increasing yield may be that alfalfa is an auto-tetraploid (2n=4x=32). The breeding methods that have been effective with diploid crop species are not as effective when applied to alfalfa.

Pest Resistance:

Increased levels of pest resistance have been a major success of alfalfa breeding. Many alfalfa breeders work cooperatively with plant pathologists or entomologists, and effective techniques for increasing pest resistance have been developed. Procedures for evaluating resistance have been standardized, and susceptible and resistant lines have been identified for many of the disease and insect pests of alfalfa (Elgin, 1984).

Multiple-pest resistance is a major goal of most alfalfa improvement programs today. The most recent cultivars usually have moderate or higher levels of resistance to bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f.sp. medicaginis (Weimer) Snyd. & Hans.), Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii Bain & Essary), Phtophthora root rot, the pea aphid, and the spotted alfalfa aphid. When vertcillium wilt (Vertcillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berth.) was first discovered in the United States, public and private agencies immediately initiated efforts to incorporate resistance into aphid germplasm. Many of the newer cultivars have moderate or higher levels of resistance to verticillium wilt. Germplasm or cultivars with resistance to a number of other alfalfa pests also have been developed.

Increased pest resistance has been an indirect contributor to increased yields. Spectacular differences in yield can be observed when resistant and susceptible cultivars are grown on a site known to harbor a particular disease or insect pest.

Much of the breeding for pest resistance is done in greenhouse and growth- chamber facilities. Most selections made in the greenhouse and growth-chamber facilities are resistant when tested under field conditions.

Although progress in breeding for multiple-pest resistance in alfalfa has been spectacular, suitable resistance to a number of disease and insect pests has not been found, including fusarium root rot and crown rot [Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel & Wr. and F. roseum Lk. ex Fr. emend. Snyd. & Hans.), the alfalfa blotch leaf minor (Agromyza frontella (Rondani)], and the clover root curculio [Sitonia hispidula (F)]. A degree of tolerance has been found in some cases, like the alfalfa weevil [Hypera postica (Gyllenhall)] and the potato leaf hopper [Empuasca fabae (Harris)], but the level is not great enough to provide protection in severe infestations or epidemics.

The success in breeding for pest resistance depends on developing methods that permit accurate identification of resistant genotypes. Once this is done, a satisfactory level of resistance to most alfalfa pests often can be obtained in three to five cycles of selection. The inability to find resistance to some diseases or insect pests can very likely be attributed to the lack of a suitable method of identifying resistance.

Quality:

Alfalfa has a higher feeding value than most forage crops. Some effort is being devoted to greater improvement of alfalfa forage quality. Valid improvement program objectives include increased protein concentration, decreased fiber (increased digestibility), and reduction of bloat potential.

Protein concentration:

Alfalfa serves as an important on-farm protein source for ruminant animals. In many farm animal operations, the value of the protein from alfalfa is a major economic justification for growing the crop. Alfalfa was the most efficient species discussed by Heichel (1976) for production of protein. Heritability of protein concentration in alfalfa is relatively high, and progress in breeding for higher concentrations can be expected (Hill and Barnes, 1977; Sumberg et al., 1983). Selection for increased protein concentration often indirectly improves other quality constituents (Cooper, 1973). Near-infra-red reflectance spectroscopy is probably the most economical method for measuring protein concentration in alfalfa forage samples (Shenk et al., 1981).

1.2.6 Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement

Fungal diseases such as crown rot are another factors causing evident yield reduction. In addition, the local cultivars and ecotypes of alfalfa in different regions of the country are at present facing the problems of high temperature, drought and/or salinity. Few researches have been carried out in Sultan Qaboos University and at the regional agricultural research stations. Esechie et al. (2002) investigated the effect of N fertilizer on shoot and root growth in salinity-stressed alfalfa. Esechie and Rodriguez (1999) investigated the effects of salinity in leaf growth of alfalfa. Esechie et al. (1998) studied the effects of salinity on biomass production, nodulation and N2 fixation in an Omani alfalfa accession “Batini”. Esechie and Rodriguez (1998) compared the distribution of ions in the leaf, stem and roots of alfalfa seedlings irrigated with saline solutions during cool season and warm season in Oman. Esechie (1993) investigated response of alfalfa seed germination to salinity and temperature. The NaCl salinity resulted in substantial reductions in growth, N2 fixation percentage, and total fixed N2 in alfalfa and the effect was more pronounced for the second cuttings than the first ones (Tucker et al,1992).

These factors, together, call for improvement of local cultivars through appropriate breeding programs. The task of crop improvement will be more successful when we have thorough knowledge of their genetic variations. These ecotypes are routinely differentiated using morphological descriptors, and although such descriptions are indeed useful from a breeding perspective, they are inadequate for analysis of population genetic structure. Cultivated alfalfa is autotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32) (McCoy and Bingham 1988), cross-pollinated (allogamous) and seed propagated. The genetic progress is slow in this legume species because of its autotetraploidy and allogamy (Julier et al., 2003). One way to identify the maximally diverse parental genotypes is through an evaluation of genetic diversity using molecular markers. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers are codominant, abundant and hyper variable molecular markers from eukaryotic genomes that are being widely used in genetic mapping, phylogenetic studies and marker-assisted selection ((He et al. 2003a). The use of SSR loci as polymorphic DNA markers has expanded considerably over the past decade both in the number of studies and in the number of organisms, primarily due to their facility and power for population genetic analyses (Touil et al., 2008).Currently, the number of available SSR markers is still very limited for use in alfalfa (He et al., 2003b). He et al., (2009) developed 78 genomic SSRs obtained from alfalfa with excellent utility for polymorphic assessment and potential application for phylogenetic and genetic mapping studies of alfalfa. Esechie el at., (2009) evaluated the genetic diversity in Omani alfalfa germplasm and found the existence of variability among 15 Oman alfalfa accessions using the RAPD technique. However, further studies are needed to assess Omani alfalfa in respect of prevailing situation of biotic and abiotic factors especially the salinity.

1.3 Problems related to a biotic and biotic management factors

1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity:

Until mid-seventies, water demand and supply were relatively well balanced. Subsequently, high water demand has led to over pumping and prolonged drought has reduced the extent of recharge. These situations have been progressively deteriorating the quality of both water and soil towards salinity. The affected areas are mostly the farms near the coast, which have abundant but saline water (4-16 dS/m). In the Interior and other regions, however, there is occurrence of dryland salinity where the hydrology of an area has been modified by clearance of vegetation and changed land management practices. Salinity of such water and soil has exceeded the limit tolerable by the economic food or forage crops. Thus, changing situation in both water and soil as mentioned above would expectedly affect the future fodder production in the country since major fodder crops like alfalfa are moderately sensitive (Maas and Hoffman, 1977 and Maas, 1986). This fact assumes much importance because of introduction of sprinkler irrigation. Irrigating alfalfa with water having more than 3 meq/l of Na and Cl by sprinklers during daytime cause severe leaf burn and reduce the crop growth. However, resorting to nighttime irrigation leads to the recovery of crop from the injury (FAO, 1973). Such management to reduce the effect of salinity in already existing cultivars does seem to be practicable when the level of salinity rises higher than the limit tolerable by the crop. Under such circumstances, it would be appropriate and the only approach, to breed genotypes in alfalfa that would be tolerant to desired level of salinity.

1.3.2 Water Scarcity:Sultanate is categorized as arid country with low rain fall and high evapo-transpiration (ET). Rainfall varies from less than 50 mm in central Oman to more than 300 mm in north Oman Mountains. Ground water is the main source of water for both domestic and agriculture use. A large area of Batinah, the major agriculture region of the country, is facing a crucial problem of groundwater level decline and substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Over pumping is the main reason for substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Consequently, the fresh groundwater in the Batinah region has become saline due to sea water intrusion.

The consequences of aridity and high water use in Batinah have caused negative impacts on its agriculture environment viz. groundwater deficit and salinity. Impacts mainly include farm abandonment. These situations have led to a suggestion for imposition of desertification in Batinah (Al-Lawati, 1998 and FAO, 2008). On the other hand, limiting water resources in the country culminate in allocation of water to crops that yield higher and have better water-use efficiency.

At this point, it cannot be disputed that crop improvement is at the core of improved economic activity. Seemingly, this is highly depended on the availability of wide ranging germ plasm as well as efficient utilization of the same. Seemingly, alfalfa is distributed globally and grown in varied environments. The relative geographic expansion and adaptation enhances genetic variation and allows technicians to use diverse gene pools. Notably, alfalfa is an open pollinated, autotetraplod species. It is characterized by pronounced inbreeding depression and tetrasomic inheritance.

In light of above information, alfalfa, being the prime and preferred forage crop in Oman, could be explored for its improvement. This can be attained through plant breeding in a bid to develop high yielding genotypes that have high water-use efficiency and which are suitable under sprinkler irrigation. Notably, this would encourage sustainable cultivation. Proposed studies on the genetic aspects of WUE and related physiological traits would help in providing valid information for future alfalfa improvement program.

1.3.3 Diseases:The following diseases have been reported in the farmer’s field.

a). Crown rot and wilt: These severely attack the crop in the Southern plains (Salalah) where the crop succumbs to the diseases and becomes annual in nature. Waller and Bridge (1978) have recorded observations on the symptoms of the syndrome. The symptoms start with the wilting of the mature stems and girdling of the stems. The disease penetrates into the crown and results in the death of plant. Each cutting cycle experiences death of 10% of the plants and at the year end, the crop stand will be less than half of the original stand. The local sources indicated that the disease exists throughout the season. The disease would be severe during hot dry weather when frequent irrigations are provided. The causal organisms are suspected to be Melanospora zamiae L. and Fusarium salani L. as these were isolated from diseased crowns. However, disease could not be reproduced under laboratory conditions. It was concluded that disease could result from an interaction of pathogenic soil fungi with environmental factors.

b). Leaf spot caused by Stemphylium globiferum is very common in the Interior on old alfalfa stands causing as much as 30% damage.

c).Leaf rust caused by Uromyces striatus is common and locally severe in coastal areas, particularly on the young stands.

d).Downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoli results in some yield losses.

e). Anthracnose on stems caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is also observed on few stands.

f). Witches’ broom, a mycoplasma disease has been reported in the farmers field recently (Al-Rawahi et al., 1998) and observed to be very serious in causing loss to the extent of 25% of green matter yield. It is characterized by formation of excessive short and spindly shoots with small, rounded and often pale green leaves. After 3 or 4 cuttings, the crown fails to grow and die, leaving empty patches in the field.

g).Alfalfa mosaic virus was recorded in as many as 80% of the farms surveyed with 11-20% of disease incidence. The virus was found to be seed borne and hence disease incidence was higher in the fields where crop was planted with the seeds of infected plant stand (Anonymous, 1998).

Among the above diseases, the crown rot and wilt are very much endemic in Salalah plains and is of serious nature. Witches’ broom may emerge any time with surprise causing concern like the one noticed in Omani limes. Other diseases however, occur sporadically depending upon conditions viz. temperature, relative humidity etc.

1.3.4. Insect pests:

The following insect pests have been reported in the farmers’ field.

a). Spotted alfalfa aphids (Theriphis maculata): occurs in damaging numbers.

b). The potato leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae): causes stunting and yellowing.

c). Lygus bugs (Lygus spp.): cause serious damage to alfalfa seed production.

d). Grass hoppers and alfalfa caterpillar: occasionally cause damage to the green matter.

1.3.5. Nematodes:Omani alfalfa varieties like Qaryati, Batini and Interior were found to be completely resistant to Omani isolates of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and the variety Dhofari was slightly susceptible, although there are indications that Qaryati does support very few low populations of Meloidogyne javanica (Sutherland, 1976).

1.4. Mechanization:

It is believed that local alfalfa cultivars are not amenable for mechanization, as they are required to be cut at ground level for regeneration of the crown. 1.5. Agronomic Characters

In various agricultural systems, it is desirable to manipulate both height and tillering. Plant breeders have modified both apical dominance and plant height in the grass crops, but the genetic variability and behavioral details vary from crop to crop.

Ayers and Westcot (1976) conducted an investigation to identify the initial step in development of salinity-tolerant cultivars. They noticed that genetic variability for salinity tolerance could be identified within ecotypes of a species. They concluded that direct selection criteria could be based on growth or yield and provided important information for management decisions such as the salinity level where 50% growth reduction is expected.

Many researchers also reported that salt stress also results in a considerable decrease in the fresh and dry weights of leaves, stems, and roots (Hernandez et al., 1995; Ali Dinar et al., 1999; Chartzoulakis and Klapaki, 2000). It is now generally recognized that under the saline conditions the degree to which growth is reduced by salinity differs greatly with species and to a lesser extent with varieties within a species. The severity of salinity response is also mediated by environmental interactions, such as relative humidity, temperature, radiation and air pollution (Shannon et al., 1994).

1.5.1. Effects of salinity on physiologic parametersMultiple effects of salinity on plant physiology are related to enzyme activity, nutrient imbalance, membrane dysfunction, general metabolic processes, water relations and oxidative stress (Orcutt and Nilsen, 2000). Salinity stress drags out composite effects on plant mechanisms, which result in nutrient imbalance, water shortage and accumulation of toxic ions (Werner and Finkelstein, 1995). Many workers have investigat

Final Document

List of Contents

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..3

1.1 General Introduction………………………………………………………………3

1.2 Alfalfa Improvement in Oman- Prospects and Procedures………………………..3

1.2.1 Why Medicago Sativa? …………………………………………………………………………….3

1.2.2 Present Position……………………………………………………………………4

1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing Regions………………………………………………………..5

1.2.4 Alfalfa: A perennial Legume…………………………………………………….6

1.2.5 Improvement Objectives for Cultivar Development…………………………….8

1.2.6 Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement……………………………………………11

1.3 Problems related to Abiotic and Biotic Management Factors……………………12

1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity…………………………………………………………12

1.3.2 Water Scarcity…………………………………………………………………13

1.3.3 Diseases…………………………………………………………………………14

1.3.4 Insect Pests……………………………………………………………………..15

1.3.5 Nematodes………………………………………………………………………15

1.4 Mechanization……………………………………………………………………15

1.5 Agronomic Factors……………………………………………………………….15

1.6 Effects of Salinity on Physiologic Parameters……………………………………16

1.7 Alfalfa’s Genetic Diversity………………………………………………………17

1.7.1 Genetic Mapping………………………………………………………………17

1.7.2 Experimental Aims……………………………………………………………18

1.7.3 Phase 1. Evaluation of Alfalfa Accessions…………………………………….19

2.0 Materials and Methods………………………………………………………….19

2.1 Recording and Observations…………………………………………………….19

2.2 Agronomic Characters……………………………………………………………20

2.3 Determination of Ionic concentration in Plant tissues……………………………20

2.4 Determination of Phosphorus……………………………………………………20

2.5 Determination of chloride……………………………………………………….21

2.6 Physiological Traits………………………………………………………………22

2.7 Phenotypic Data Measurements…………………………………………………21

3.0 Molecular Studies………………………………………………………………22

3.1 SSR Analysis……………………………………………………………………22

3.2 Statistical Analysis……………………………………………………………….23

3.3 Phenotypic Data Analysis………………………………………………………..23

3.4 Genomic DNA Extraction…………………………………………………………23

3.5 Pre-selective PCR…………………………………………………………………24

3.6 Post-selective PCR………………………………………………………………24

3.7 Fragment Analysis………………………………………………………………24

3.8 Genetic distance estimates and cluster analysis………………………………….24

3.9 Structure analysis…………………………………………………………………24

4.0 Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………25

5.0 Conclusions and Further work……………………………………………………25

6.0 References………………………………………………………………………..26

1. Introduction 1.1 General IntroductionIn Arid and semi arid lands, farmers depend solely on animal husbandry to cater for their livelihoods. In this regard, they practice large scale ranching in which they keep wide ranging livestock species. Limited rainfall greatly undermines their ability to explore other forms of farming effectively. For sustainable animal farming, they focus on plants that are highly productive. Certainly, forages of high digestibility and nutritive value enable them to reap optimally from these farming practices. This is at the core of their sustainable economic goals and objectives. Just like other farmers inhabiting arid and semi arid lands, farmers in Sultanate of Oman explore animal husbandry to sustain their livelihoods. This requires them to produce high quality forage for their animals in order to benefit optimally from the same. Alfalfa, scientifically, known as medicago sativa offers the best option for this. Michaud et al. (1988) stated that it is difficult to define precisely when and how alfalfa spread and reached various countries and areas. They explained that maritime trade was well developed in the eastern Mediterranean as early as 4000 B.C., which could have contributed to the spread of alfalfa and may have resulted in significant mixture of hybridization of ecotypes from widely separated regions.

Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian Gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties which resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region leading to the evolution of many unique local ecotypes of this crop. Relatively little use has been made of Middle Eastern alfalfa germplasm in formal breeding programs largely because variations among accessions from this region have not been systematically described or made widely available (Smith et al., 1995)

1.2 Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures1.2.1 Why Medicago sativa?

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), the Queen of forage crops, forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate. Every farmer desires to grow it at least in small pieces of land depending on his holding to feed his goats, cattle or camels. Alfalfa plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of the country. In this regard, it accounts for almost half of the agricultural output (by value). It is the best quality feed for livestock as well as horses, contributing significantly to the quality of animal products. Nationally, it ranks top amongst the agricultural crops and has an annual production of an estimated 8.1 US dollars. Alfalfa forage is produced (harvested) throughout the year but it is higher during winter and low in summer.

It is a remarkable crop in comparison with others. Alfalfa is recognized as the most widely adapted agronomic crop, effective source of biological nitrogen (N2) fixation, energy efficient- crop to grow, important source of protein yield/ha and attractive source of nectar for honeybees. In addition to being an excellent source of vitamins and minerals, it is important for improving soil tilth (Barnes et .al., 1984). It is believed that alfalfa originated in South Western Asia (near Iran) but related forms and species are found scattered over central Asia as far north as Siberia. It was carried from Iran to Arabian Gulf, the Mediterranean countries and finally into Europe, America and Australia by traders, invading armies, explorers and missionaries as a valuable source of feed for horses and other animals. Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region. Few authors consider Arabian Peninsula as secondary center of diversity.

1.2.2 Present PositionThe Sultanate of Oman, being the third largest country in the Arabian Peninsula, has 73670.59 ha of agricultural land under cultivation of which fruits occupy a significant 50.33 % followed by perennial fodders (22.03 %), vegetables (8.41 %) and field crops (19.23 %). The total production, however, is shared highest by perennial fodders (53.09 %) followed by fruits (27.16 %), vegetables (15.67 %) and grain crops (4.08 %) (MoA, 2010). The fodder demand in the Sultanate is mostly met by the local production of alfalfa and Rhodes grass.

Table 1. Area and distribution of alfalfa in Oman1 (1995 data)

Sl.No. Region Cultivated Area (ha) Area under alfalfa (ha) % of alfalfa area

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. South Batinah

North Batinah

Sharqiya

Al-Wasta

Dhofar

Muscat

Dhahira

Interior

Musandam 11678

20643

7537

13

2822

3377

9421

6897

796 2411

3190

787

3

66

623

1662

1009

15 20.65

15.45

10.44

23.08

2.34

18.45

17.64

14.63

1.88

Total — 63184 9766 15.46

1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate, as every farmer desires to grow it at least in small piece of land depending on his holding to feed his goat, sheep, cattle or camel, thus contributing about 11344 ha i.e. 15.40 percent of cultivated area (MAF, 1997). This feature seems to be common case throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It is grown widely in Batinah, Salalah plains, Interior and desert plains of Nejd. The region wise distribution cultivated area of alfalfa in the country is presented in Table 1.

1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing RegionsThe major alfalfa growing regions are North Batinah (3190 ha), South Batinah (2411 ha), Dhahira (1662 ha) and Interior (1009 ha), which together share 84.70% of total alfalfa area. Interestingly, of these major growing regions, South Batinah (20.65%) has highest percentage of its area in alfalfa followed by Dhahira (17.64%), North Batinah (15.45%) and Interior (14.63%).

The planting is usually done between November and January. The crop is cut first after about 60 to 70 days and then every 25-40 days up to 10-11 times in a year. Typical yield of green matter is about 40 t/ha/year. The national average green matter production and productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1997 is depicted in Table 2 (MAF, 1990-97).

Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1998

in Oman 1

Year Area (ha) Production

(‘000 t) Productivity (t/ha) Productivity (t/ha)/ cut

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998 9000.0

9021.0

9241.0

9240.0

11047.9

11302.5

11344.5

11344.5

11042.9 345.6

360.8

372.7

375.0

445.3

455.6

487.7

490.0

460.5 38.40 3.84

40.00 4.00

40.33 4.03

40.58 4.06

40.31 4.03

40.31 4.03

43.00 4.30

43.19 4.32

41.70 4.17

1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

1.2.4 Alfafa: A perennial legumeFrom the point of view of the farmers, Alfafa is a perennial legume that is affordable, yet of very high digestibility and nutritive value. This enables the farmers to explore it at affordable prices and be able to reap optimal yields ultimately. It is persistent in nature and upon harvesting, it’s quite voluminous. The fact that weather conditions have minimal effects on its productivity enables it to be transferred to different regions with ease. It’s well known for its idyllic persistence and adaptability in new regions.

Among the number of agro-ecotypes of Oman, perennial locals viz. Oman Interior local and Batinah local are popular as they are stand persistent owing to their adaptability to the normal practice of ground level cutting by the farmers. A number of landraces that have been differentiated over centuries have been recognized mainly on the basis of longevity. The variants of “Batini” type have an expected life span of 8-10 years in the Batinah but they perform poorly when grown in the mountains.

There are local strains in Hajar Mountains which are known to persist over ten years, but they fail when grown down in the coast, where “Qaryati” is popular. There are also distinct types grown in different regions like “Sharqiya” around Sur and “Omani” in Interior region. The strains in the South have been found distinct from those of North. In 1987-1988 IPGRI, previously IBPGR, collected 87 alfalfa landraces. The collection mission covered most of the area of Oman. Presently, 87 alfalfa accessions were conserved in ICARDA Gene Bank (Guarino, 1987; MAF, 1989). In addition, seven accessions of alfalfa have been conserved in National gene bank of USA

High productivity

Figure 1: Productivity of Alfalfa

Recent researches ascertain that Alfalfa can produce high yields as well as high quality forage. This is attributable to the inbreeding practices that have ensured production of high quality species. Relative scientific efforts are devotedly geared towards improving its yield and quality. Depending on the environmental conditions and type of soil, alfalfa yields a significant 50 to 100 tons of forage per hectare. Dry matter in such instances ranges from 12 to 19 tons per hectare. Compared to other forage plants, its productivity is relatively high.

1.2.5 Improvement objectives for cultivar development

The ultimate objective of any cultivar improvement program is the development of germplasm that will enhance production of the crop. Alfalfa use varies from production of green forage (fresh or stored) in intensive forage -animal production systems to a legume in pastures and ranges in extensive forage -animal systems. The goals of alfalfa breeding programs vary considerably, depending on the intended use of the germplasm under development. Nonetheless, there are some traits considered important by most alfalfa breeding programs.

Yield:

Alfalfa is valued for its ability to produce high yields of high-quality forage. Although alfalfa is used in pastures and ranges, most breeding programs attempt to develop cultivars that will perform well under intensive forage production systems. Most alfalfa breeders feel that a cultivar will not be economically successful unless it is adapted to intensive forage programs.

Genetic increases in alfalfa yield have been about 3% per decade (Elliot et al., 1972; Hill and Kalton, 1976). The total increase in yields obtained by farmers has been greater than this, but part of the increase must be attributed to better management and fertility practices. Separation of genetic from non-genetic increases is difficult because some of the total increase has been the result of cultivars better adapted to intensive management and high fertility.

Several reasons can be proposed for the lower rate of genetic improvement for yield in alfalfa than for the grain crops. Evans (1980) suggested that much of the improvement in seed yield was the result of shunting photosynthetic products to organs or plant tissues of greater economic value. This route has not been available to alfalfa breeders because the entire plant is of economic value. A second possible reason for the lower rate of progress is that alfalfa is perennial with multiple harvests per growing season. The perennial growth habit of alfalfa dictates that the same plot be observed for several years before selections are made. This increases the time per selection cycle, and under such conditions, an equal gain per cycle of selection would translate to a lower rate of gain for a given time period. A third reason for the lower rate of progress in increasing yield may be that alfalfa is an auto-tetraploid (2n=4x=32). The breeding methods that have been effective with diploid crop species are not as effective when applied to alfalfa.

Pest Resistance:

Increased levels of pest resistance have been a major success of alfalfa breeding. Many alfalfa breeders work cooperatively with plant pathologists or entomologists, and effective techniques for increasing pest resistance have been developed. Procedures for evaluating resistance have been standardized, and susceptible and resistant lines have been identified for many of the disease and insect pests of alfalfa (Elgin, 1984).

Multiple-pest resistance is a major goal of most alfalfa improvement programs today. The most recent cultivars usually have moderate or higher levels of resistance to bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f.sp. medicaginis (Weimer) Snyd. & Hans.), Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii Bain & Essary), Phtophthora root rot, the pea aphid, and the spotted alfalfa aphid. When vertcillium wilt (Vertcillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berth.) was first discovered in the United States, public and private agencies immediately initiated efforts to incorporate resistance into aphid germplasm. Many of the newer cultivars have moderate or higher levels of resistance to verticillium wilt. Germplasm or cultivars with resistance to a number of other alfalfa pests also have been developed.

Increased pest resistance has been an indirect contributor to increased yields. Spectacular differences in yield can be observed when resistant and susceptible cultivars are grown on a site known to harbor a particular disease or insect pest.

Much of the breeding for pest resistance is done in greenhouse and growth- chamber facilities. Most selections made in the greenhouse and growth-chamber facilities are resistant when tested under field conditions.

Although progress in breeding for multiple-pest resistance in alfalfa has been spectacular, suitable resistance to a number of disease and insect pests has not been found, including fusarium root rot and crown rot [Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel & Wr. and F. roseum Lk. ex Fr. emend. Snyd. & Hans.), the alfalfa blotch leaf minor (Agromyza frontella ( Rondani)], and the clover root curculio [Sitonia hispidula (F)]. A degree of tolerance has been found in some cases, like the alfalfa weevil [Hypera postica ( Gyllenhall)] and the potato leaf hopper [ Empuasca fabae (Harris)], but the level is not great enough to provide protection in severe infestations or epidemics.

The success in breeding for pest resistance depends on developing methods that permit accurate identification of resistant genotypes. Once this is done, a satisfactory level of resistance to most alfalfa pests often can be obtained in three to five cycles of selection. The inability to find resistance to some diseases or insect pests can very likely be attributed to the lack of a suitable method of identifying resistance.

Quality:

Alfalfa has a higher feeding value than most forage crops. Some effort is being devoted to greater improvement of alfalfa forage quality. Valid improvement program objectives include increased protein concentration, decreased fiber (increased digestibility), and reduction of bloat potential.

Protein concentration:

Alfalfa serves as an important on-farm protein source for ruminant animals. In many farm animal operations, the value of the protein from alfalfa is a major economic justification for growing the crop. Alfalfa was the most efficient species discussed by Heichel (1976) for production of protein. Heritability of protein concentration in alfalfa is relatively high, and progress in breeding for higher concentrations can be expected (Hill and Barnes, 1977; Sumberg et al., 1983). Selection for increased protein concentration often indirectly improves other quality constituents (Cooper, 1973). Near-infra-red reflectance spectroscopy is probably the most economical method for measuring protein concentration in alfalfa forage samples (Shenk et al., 1981).

1.2.6 Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement

Fungal diseases such as crown rot are another factors causing evident yield reduction. In addition, the local cultivars and ecotypes of alfalfa in different regions of the country are at present facing the problems of high temperature, drought and/or salinity. Few researches have been carried out in Sultan Qaboos University and at the regional agricultural research stations. Esechie et al. (2002) investigated the effect of N fertilizer on shoot and root growth in salinity-stressed alfalfa. Esechie and Rodriguez (1999) investigated the effects of salinity in leaf growth of alfalfa. Esechie et al. (1998) studied the effects of salinity on biomass production, nodulation and N2 fixation in an Omani alfalfa accession “Batini”. Esechie and Rodriguez (1998) compared the distribution of ions in the leaf, stem and roots of alfalfa seedlings irrigated with saline solutions during cool season and warm season in Oman. Esechie (1993) investigated response of alfalfa seed germination to salinity and temperature. The NaCl salinity resulted in substantial reductions in growth, N2 fixation percentage, and total fixed N2 in alfalfa and the effect was more pronounced for the second cuttings than the first ones (Tucker et al,1992).

These factors, together, call for improvement of local cultivars through appropriate breeding programs. The task of crop improvement will be more successful when we have thorough knowledge of their genetic variations. These ecotypes are routinely differentiated using morphological descriptors, and although such descriptions are indeed useful from a breeding perspective, they are inadequate for analysis of population genetic structure. Cultivated alfalfa is autotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32) (McCoy and Bingham 1988), cross-pollinated (allogamous) and seed propagated. The genetic progress is slow in this legume species because of its autotetraploidy and allogamy (Julier et al., 2003). One way to identify the maximally diverse parental genotypes is through an evaluation of genetic diversity using molecular markers. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers are codominant, abundant and hyper variable molecular markers from eukaryotic genomes that are being widely used in genetic mapping, phylogenetic studies and marker-assisted selection ((He et al. 2003a). The use of SSR loci as polymorphic DNA markers has expanded considerably over the past decade both in the number of studies and in the number of organisms, primarily due to their facility and power for population genetic analyses (Touil et al., 2008).Currently, the number of available SSR markers is still very limited for use in alfalfa (He et al., 2003b). He et al., (2009) developed 78 genomic SSRs obtained from alfalfa with excellent utility for polymorphic assessment and potential application for phylogenetic and genetic mapping studies of alfalfa. Esechie el at., (2009) evaluated the genetic diversity in Omani alfalfa germplasm and found the existence of variability among 15 Oman alfalfa accessions using the RAPD technique. However, further studies are needed to assess Omani alfalfa in respect of prevailing situation of biotic and abiotic factors especially the salinity.

1.3 Problems related to a biotic and biotic management factors

1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity:

Until mid-seventies water demand and supply were relatively well balanced. Subsequently, high water demand has led to over pumping and prolonged drought has reduced the extent of recharge. These situations have been progressively deteriorating the quality of both water and soil towards salinity. The affected areas are mostly the farms near the coast, which have abundant but saline water (4-16 dS/m). In the Interior and other regions, however, there is occurrence of dryland salinity where the hydrology of an area has been modified by clearance of vegetation and changed land management practices. Salinity of such water and soil has exceeded the limit tolerable by the economic food or forage crops. Thus, changing situation in both water and soil as mentioned above would expectedly affect the future fodder production in the country since major fodder crops like alfalfa are moderately sensitive (Maas and Hoffman, 1977 and Maas, 1986). This fact assumes much importance because of introduction of sprinkler irrigation. Irrigating alfalfa with water having more than 3 meq/l of Na and Cl by sprinklers during daytime cause severe leaf burn and reduce the crop growth. However, resorting to nighttime irrigation leads to the recovery of crop from the injury (FAO, 1973). Such management to reduce the effect of salinity in already existing cultivars does seem to be practicable when the level of salinity rises higher than the limit tolerable by the crop. Under such circumstances, it would be appropriate and the only approach, to breed genotypes in alfalfa that would be tolerant to desired level of salinity.

1.3.2 Water Scarcity:Sultanate is categorized as arid country with low rain fall and high evapo-transpiration (ET). Rainfall varies from less than 50 mm in central Oman to more than 300 mm in north Oman Mountains. Ground water is the main source of water for both domestic and agriculture use. A large area of Batinah, the major agriculture region of the country, is facing a crucial problem of groundwater level decline and substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Over pumping is the main reason for substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Consequently, the fresh groundwater in the Batinah region has become saline due to sea water intrusion.

The consequences of aridity and high water use in Batinah have caused negative impacts on its agriculture environment viz. groundwater deficit and salinity. Impacts mainly include farm abandonment. These situations have led to a suggestion for imposition of desertification in Batinah (Al-Lawati, 1998 and FAO, 2008). On the other hand, limiting water resources in the country culminate in allocation of water to crops that yield higher and have better water-use efficiency.

At this point, it cannot be disputed that crop improvement is at the core of improved economic activity. Seemingly, this is highly depended on the availability of wide ranging germ plasm as well as efficient utilization of the same. Seemingly, alfalfa is distributed globally and grown in varied environments. The relative geographic expansion and adaptation enhances genetic variation and allows technicians to use diverse gene pools. Notably, alfalfa is an open pollinated, autotetraplod species. It is characterized by pronounced inbreeding depression and tetrasomic inheritance.

In light of above information, alfalfa, being the prime and preferred forage crop in Oman, could be explored for its improvement. This can be attained through plant breeding in a bid to develop high yielding genotypes that have high water-use efficiency and which are suitable under sprinkler irrigation. Notably, this would encourage sustainable cultivation. Proposed studies on the genetic aspects of WUE and related physiological traits would help in providing valid information for future alfalfa improvement program.

1.3.3 Diseases:The following diseases have been reported in the farmer’s field.

a). Crown rot and wilt: These severely attack the crop in the Southern plains (Salalah) where the crop succumbs to the diseases and becomes annual in nature. Waller and Bridge (1978) have recorded observations on the symptoms of the syndrome. The symptoms start with the wilting of the mature stems and girdling of the stems. The disease penetrates into the crown and results in the death of plant. Each cutting cycle experiences death of 10% of the plants and at the year end, the crop stand will be less than half of the original stand. The local sources indicated that the disease exists through out the season. The disease would be severe during hot dry weather when frequent irrigations are provided. The causal organisms are suspected to be Melanospora zamiae L. and Fusarium salani L. as these were isolated from diseased crowns. However, disease could not be reproduced under laboratory conditions. It was concluded that disease could result from an interaction of pathogenic soil fungi with environmental factors.

b). Leaf spot caused by Stemphylium globiferum is very common in the Interior on old alfalfa stands causing as much as 30% damage.

c).Leaf rust caused by Uromyces striatus is common and locally severe in coastal areas, particularly on the young stands.

d).Downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoli results in some yield losses.

e). Anthracnose on stems caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is also observed on few stands.

f). Witches’ broom, a mycoplasma disease has been reported in the farmers field recently (Al-Rawahi et al., 1998) and observed to be very serious in causing loss to the extent of 25% of green matter yield. It is characterized by formation of excessive short and spindly shoots with small, rounded and often pale green leaves. After 3 or 4 cuttings, the crown fails to grow and die, leaving empty patches in the field.

g).Alfalfa mosaic virus was recorded in as many as 80% of the farms surveyed with 11-20% of disease incidence. The virus was found to be seed borne and hence disease incidence was higher in the fields where crop was planted with the seeds of infected plant stand (Anonymous, 1998).

Among the above diseases, the crown rot and wilt are very much endemic in Salalah plains and is of serious nature. Witches’ broom may emerge any time with surprise causing concern like the one noticed in Omani limes. Other diseases however, occur sporadically depending upon conditions viz. temperature, relative humidity etc.

1.3.4. Insect pests:

The following insect pests have been reported in the farmers’ field.

a). Spotted alfalfa aphids (Theriphis maculata): occurs in damaging numbers.

b). The potato leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae): causes stunting and yellowing.

c). Lygus bugs (Lygus spp. ): cause serious damage to alfalfa seed production.

d). Grass hoppers and alfalfa caterpillar : occasionally cause damage to the green matter.

1.3.5. Nematodes:Omani alfalfa varieties like Qaryati, Batini and Interior were found to be completely resistant to Omani isolates of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and the variety Dhofari was slightly susceptible, altho

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Every Man and Woman is the Image of God/ Immigration

Introduction

It can not be disputed that in the recent past, immigration has been a thorny issue as various individuals are ascertained to be in the country illegally. The church respects the legal position in this regard and it values the right of the country to protect its physical borders by providing security and enforcing relevant immigration laws. The church also accords individuals an equal regard irrespective of their social or/ and immigration status. From a Christian view point, an immigrant is not only a person that deserves to be respected as prescribed by the law but is also an individual who gives a Christian the responsibility to care for the same. Relative biblical teachings assert that strangers should be welcomed. This paper provides an explicit explanation of how every man and woman needs to be treated as God’s image in light of immigration.

Immigrants grapple with various challenges that range from discrimination, poverty, emotional pain and loss of loved ones to injustice and contempt. There is therefore an urgent need to alter this and accord them a humane environment because of the fact that they are a representation of God’s image. This is entirely influenced by biblical teachings that assert that an alien needs to be given humane treatment and not molested. Immigrants in this regard are likened to the experience of Joseph Mary and Jesus in Egypt as they fled from the fury of Herod (CCK 2). Various factors influence the refugees to flee their home area. Irrespective of these, Christianity demands that protection and love needs to be extended to them. This requires change of attitude towards the same and perception of them as God’s image, rather than refugees.

In order to attain this state of affairs, the church has worked relentlessly to educate the masses regarding the status of refugees. Particular areas of concern in this regard have been to create awareness about the hostile conditions of the countries of origin and why going back would compromise their wellbeing. Of great reference however has been to inform the public regarding the need to protect the dignity of the immigrants by providing them with vital care.

In addition, the church has worked unceasingly to inform the relevant authority of the inalienable rights of the immigrants including their rights to seek for security beyond their borders. In this regard, the church equates immigrants to the children of God whom Christ died for. Notably, he did not discriminate but died for the sins of every individual so that they could be delivered from their sinful nature. Likewise, the nationals need to treat immigrants in a similar manner regardless of their immigration status.

In addition, it has established refugee services programs that provide the needed care to the refugees. It has liaised with numerous volunteers to set up apartments that provide the immigrants with shelter. In addition, its volunteers provide important services that include orientation of the refugees to their new environment and providing day care services for them while they learn English language. Further, this institution mobilizes aid and donations that are usually in form of food, furniture, clothing and sanitary items. Other important services include cultural consultation that enables the immigrants to fit within the local community and adapt to the new culture with ease.

Further, they offer numerous social outreach programs. These constitute electrical engineering, carpentry, computer training, legal services and family counseling. In addition, they provide the refugees with a comprehensive health program that addresses their specific health needs. Notably, these are achieved through close partnerships and collaborations with the various social agencies. Most recently, the church has contemplated deploying pastoral officials who come from a similar background as the refugees to these areas. This is in a bit to enhance dialogue and ensure that the immigrants are comfortable.

Also, considering the fact that most of them come from Spanish speaking nations, the church offers Spanish classes to the same (CCK 5). This not only increases their level of literacy but also eases communication amongst them. In addition, it is an indication of respect of the culture of the immigrants. All these efforts are considered to be a fulfillment of spiritual obligation and responsibility of perceiving one as God’s image and treating the same in a humane manner. Most importantly, the church and other citizens are advocating for amendment of the immigration policy. This would ensure that the immigrants are accorded fair treatment by the legal personnel.

Conclusion

It is the responsibility of the state, church and individual to ensure that immigrants are respected and given the relevant care and protection. Irrespective of the fact that the country needs to enforce its laws and secure its borders, it is also imperative that it perceives the immigrants as God’s children. In particular, they need to be considered as an image of God and treated as such. Religious studies assert that all individuals need to be treated equally and none should be discriminated against. In addition, it accords the natives a responsibility to care for the aliens and forbids the former from mistreating and molesting immigrants. Classic examples of such treatment from the bible include the treatment of the Israelites as well as Jesus, Mary and Joseph in foreign lands.

Work Cited

CCK (2006). Every Individual is a Representation of God’s Image. Retrieved, 23rd February, 2010, from: http://www.ccky.org/Pastoral%20Resources/Immigration%20Series/2006%20Every%20Man%20and%20Woman%20is%20the%20Image%20of%20God%20%20FINAL.pdf

Introduction

Every society has undergone change in their political, economical and the entire social life. This is because the society is dynamic and for it to meet the emerging challenges then new intellectuals and innovations are required. The following discussion focuses on the intellectual and cultural trends in Europe in the last half of the twentieth century.

Discussion

There has been transformation in the political arena in that democracy has been embraced. This has given people the freedom to participate in the political activities since their voices are considered. The governments ensure that there is accountability and transparency in their work (Grinsven 13). On the intellectual part, Europe ensures that the political arena makes the use of the learned people who are also experienced when formulating policies to govern the people. The inclusion of the intelligent people in politics enables the government to be proactive.

Social life has also undergone change. Initially there were a number of cultures and some felt that they were superior to others and this posed threat to the social order. Current change has seen the emergence of universal culture which accommodates all cultures. Formal education has been producing an intellectual culture that shuns irrational beliefs and embrace cultural diversity.

Europe has also experienced change in the economic field. This has seen shift from agricultural activities to the dominant service industries. Human labor has gradually being replaced by the use of the technologies. The intellectual trend has been useful in the invention of these technologies that have helped to increase productivity and improve on the quality of services.

Conclusion

Societal change is inevitable owing to the fact that social phenomena can be quit challenging and therefore, there is need for positive transformation so as to meet the current needs.

Reference

Van Grinsven: The European Council under Construction. Netherlands Institution for international Relations, p 13 2003