Category: Uncategorized

Meta-analysis

Name

Institution

Course

date Executive summary

Although the advantages of using meta-analysis seem obvious, critics have been raised. The critics entail the possibility of introducing bias into sampling findings and placing emphasis on personal effects. There are various disadvantages associated with meta-analysis as witnessed in this research. This paper analyses a meta-analysis of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Outcomes. It evaluates the Effects of Research-Specific Procedures.

The first weakness of DeCoster (2009) paper analysis is personal bias in choosing and including existing studies in the analysis. In the DeCoster (2009), there is no database that includes all empirical studies on the topic of interest. It is also true that not every computer assisted search can identify all journal articles on the chosen topic. Many good studies are not available simply because they were never published. There might be a publication bias; to mean, important results are more likely to be published, whereas non-significant results are neglected into file drawers.  Meta-analysis researchers in DeCoster (2009) paper need to set a clear and consistent standard for including all valid studies that meet this standard and to make a great effort in including all valid studies that meet this standard.

In the recommendation, DeCoster (2009) paper researchers also must avoid personal bias in deciding which studies from the literature to include in the analysis (Joel et al., 2012).

The second drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) originates from the huge variation of present studies. Even on the same research topic and question, existing empirical studies may vary considerably in theoretical foundations and methodological issues, such as sampling strategy, measurements of interested variables, data analysis techniques, and the reporting formats and contents. It is evident that there exist considerable changes among various studies.

Evaluation of Meta-analysis

Various scholars have argued in defending meta-analysis by stating that it helps in synthesizing disparate researches. Various scholars have arguments that even though past research varies in their methodology, a meta-analysis which is well designed considers variations by treating them as moderator variables. Meta-analysis researchers ought to be careful in the aggregation of various studies with different participants and sampling methods. They should also consider operationalization and measuring variables of interests which was not carried out in DeCoster (2009) paper. When joining studies, scholars should be attentive to appropriate moderator variables that can result to alterations in research outcomes (Joel et al., 2012).

The other drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) paper is its dependence on personal effects on various predictors on a dependent variable. In DeCoster (2009) paper, Meta-analysis methodically measures only personal relations between dependent and independent variables and cannot give a broad picture. Rosenthal and Dimatteo (2001) argue that this sample, systematic approach is essential in most research domains, stating that individual effects and correlations provide a foundation of building a comprehensive model that integrates many individual variables. In addition, meta-analysis tends to be a powerful tool for examining the combination and interactions of individual predictor variables. Such analysis is an essential condition for realizing multi-level and multi-factorial models. Meanwhile, meta-analysis scholars in DeCoster (2009) paper ought to be aware of the loss of information when they concentrate on particular impacts at a time in the analysis, also taking into consideration probable interactions among predictor variables.

Internal Validity

Although the list of threats to validity in DeCoster (2009) may seem devastating there is good reason to continue (Joel et al., 2012). Unlike the pilot’s checklist, on which any item overlooked could spell disaster, it is generally agreed by which any item overlooked could spell disaster. It is generally agreed by even the most finicky statisticians that a meta-analysis is not automatic failure. Suppose it has a shortcoming or two in validity; to fail, its validity problems must be serious or multiple. Nevertheless, after looking at the validity threats to meta-analysis, one can only agree with Ingram Olkin that doing a meta-analysis may be easy but doing one well is hard.

Whether the implementation of the primary studies and the meta-analysis justify the claims the researchers are making should be assessed. That is, whether the primary studies and meta-analysis actually test what the researchers say is being tested. Over a dozen threats to internal validity have been identified in DeCoster (2009) paper. In primary studies, most can be avoided by the use of proper methods, with random assignment of subjects to treatment and control conditions being the most obvious. In meta-analyses, scholars can protect against majority of the key threats to interior validity by using only principal studies, an action that was not carried out in DeCoster (2009) paper. The studies use randomization or make statistical modifications compensating for its lack.

Two other significant fears to the interior validity of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) paper comprise unfinished literature searchers, which produce samples of studies, and untrustworthy information coding from various studies. These threats can be guided against by more complete methods of collecting studies and by checks on coding discussed earlier, an action that was never carried out.

Number of studies

Piot, (2003) points out the possibility that poorly conducted studies included in his previously published meta-analysis could have artificially inflated or decreased the magnitude of the aforementioned effects sizes. However, due to a limited number of studies in the 2001 meta-analysis, Piot, (2003) was unable to statistically test the impact of study quality on effect size. To address this issue, Jones, (2006) re-analysed the now larger video game literature and identified studies that contained few methodological flaws. In order to identify methodologically sounds studies, Kimball, (2006) made use of a nine-item coding scheme. Included within this scheme were the following weaknesses: a nonviolent video game condition that involved the paying of a game that actually contained violence; a violent video game condition that contained little violence; difference between the violent and nonviolent conditions in terms of difficulty, frustration level, or generated interest, and so on. When Owens 2006 limited the revised meta-analysis to best practice studies, the effects sizes for aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognitions, and hostile affects and physiological arousal all increased. This indicates weaknesses of meta-analysis and so their applicability in DeCoster (2009).

The measurable process of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis can be employed in addressing the challenges imposed by the presence of diverse research finding on a particular question. It allows researchers to combine numerical results from a number of studies, to accurately estimate descriptive statistics. The researchers are also able to explain the inconsistencies of findings in the literature, and to discover moderate variables for a dependent variable of interest (Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001). The major strength of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis comes from its capacity to help researchers reach accurate and credible conclusions that other research approaches cannot provide(Joel et al., 2012). Such as one single primary study and qualitative or narrative literature review. Meta-analytic research strategy nonetheless has both benefits and drawbacks.

Moderator check

Lastly, the other drawback of meta-analysis as evident in DeCoster (2009) paper is its inadequate capability of including other variables that are melodramatically dissimilar from the current theory (Yang, 2002). Meta-analysis researchers cannot form new hypothetical ideas past the variables and study qualities that have not been involved in current studies. Although researchers may be able to discover different effects unless existing studies have reported relevant features (Joel et al., 2012). Consequently, a meta-analytic approach to theory building tends to be more applicable to a “research-analytic approach to theory” than “theory-than-research” strategy of theory building. Meta-analysis, consequently, has its constraints in mounting and validation of pioneering theory.

Reliability check

The principal difficulty of meta-analysis as witnessed in DeCoster (2009)is individual bias in choosing and including present studies in the analysis. In DeCoster (2009), there is no one database that entails all experiential studies in the examination. Not all computer-helped searches can classify all journal articles on the research topic. Various researches are unavailable since they are unpublished there can be a publication bias. That is, the importance in results has higher chances of being published, while non-important outcomes are relegated into file drawers (Rosenthal, 1979). Meta-analysis scholars are to set a perfect and reliable standard for containing experiential studies and to create a pronounced effort in entailing all valid studies that attain these conditions. Researchers should also evade individual bias in determining the studies from the past research to contain in the analysis.

The other drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) comes from the huge alteration of present research. Although similar research theme and question, current experiential studies may fluctuate considerably in theoretic foundations and organizational issues, for example sampling approach, measurements of concerned variables, data analysis methods, and the reporting setups and subjects (Joel et al., 2012). It is evident that there are substantial differences among published researches considering quality of research. Subsequently, some scholars have argued against the practice of meta-analysis for mixing good and bad studies.

The other critics have been raised concerning the contrast of various kinds of studies as being same to mixing different research designs (Hunt, 1997). Rosenthal (2001), though, have dissimilar studies. The arguments are that even though studies change methodologically, a meta-analysis well designed considers such variances by considering them as moderator variables. When uniting studies, researchers are to pay attention to appropriate moderator variables that can cause variances in research outcomes.

External Validity

Hall and Rosenthal (1995) suggest three basic principles to guide meta-analysis, certain processes are vital to meta-analytic study. A typical meta-analysis has the following steps:

Define variables of interest, and formulate the research questions. This is evident is DeCoster (2009) paper.

Search the literature, and identify adequate empirical studies in a systematic way. Though there is a thorough literature search in DeCoster (2009), but the search is biased.

Construct validity has to do with whether the measure used to appraise the outcome is a trustworthy indicator of effect or if it distorts the true intervention-outcome connection. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis, for example, examined how well a mental test of job abilities correlated with individuals’ actual job performance. Of the measures used in the primary studies, the mental test was known to be fairly reliable, while the job performance rating, based on a single supervisor’s opinion in each case, was generally unreliable.

The last group deals with threats to statistical validity in DeCoster (2009). These include errors in the way data are analysis is carried out. At the chief level of study, such error comprise in the way data are analyzed. At the principal level, such errors comprise using numerical tests that are unsuitable for the kind of data, exploiting on chance, and not recording statistical tests that were done. At the meta-analytic level, statistical drawbacks include unsuitable suppositions when effect sizes must be assessed, bias in changing effect sizes, and failing to weigh the studies’ results by samples size and other situations.

One of the most widely cited meta-analytic studies on media violence is Anderson, Berkowitz, (2003) systematic review of over 215 empirical studies. Each of the individual studies included in this meta-analysis assessed the negative effects of violent imagery seen in movies and on television on aggressive behaviour. Meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) proved to be an important piece of work, as the impact of violent television and movies on aggressive behaviour produced medium-sized effects sizes, far larger than many critics had suspected. More recently, Funk et al., 2002 conducted a systematic review of the impact of violent video games on aggression and aggression-related constructs using 35 independent research projects. The results of this meta-analysis provided empirical support for the contention that violent video games influence aggressive behaviour, one of the most widely cited meta-analytic studies on media violence is Funk et al., 2002 systematic review of over 215 empirical studies. This shows strength of meta-analysis and so their applicability in DeCoster (2009)(Joel et al., 2012).

The other demerit of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) and other areas is in its dependence on personal effects on various predictors on a dependent variable (Joel et al., 2012). Meta-analysis methodically measures only personal relations amid dependent and independent variables and cannot afford a broad picture. Rosenthal (2001) argue that this is easy, methodical approach is important in majority of researches, stating that personal impacts and associations give a foundation for erecting a complete model that assimilates many personal variables.

Theoretical contribution

One advantage of DeCoster (2009) meta-analytic design is its capacity to integrate and synthesize current empirical studies for a research question. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis allows researchers to integrate the existing empirical studies for a research question. Meta-analysis lets investigators to assimilate the present findings with some erudite tools for instance combined tests. Because different existing studies may come from various empirical areas, a combined test tends to cumulate the existing findings in a scientific way and thus to present the results with more generalizability (Joel et al., 2012). Researchers understand that it is crucial to conduct a literature review, yet they often get inconsistent or even conflicting findings. Qualitative or narrative review of the literature cannot deal with such findings, and thus sometimes such a review can be quite confusing.

DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis provides a cumulative view of a specific research topic by carefully analyzing similarities and differences of methodologies and findings across many studies. In other words, meta-analysis aims at getting a whole picture. By coding existing studies quantitatively, meta-analysis researchers can keep track of a large amount of potential information and then conduct a more detailed analysis (Joel et al., 2012). DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis can easily summarize multiple variables from hundreds of studies that most narrative reviews cannot handle and so its advantage. In addition, meta-analysis allows researchers to examine a wider range of relationships, interactions, and other such complex analyses that are normally not permitted under qualitative research techniques.

Moderator

The second benefit or strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis for getting good research outcomes originates forms its nature of analyzing the analysis. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis does not only cumulate outcomes from personal studies but also can be using test multifaceted theories entailing various variables (Joel et al., 2012). Since social and administrative phenomenon seems to be complicated, diverse theories from different domains have been put in place to assist explain such phenomena. There might be various competing philosophies or hypothetical frameworks in one research domain. For instance, scholars can recognize various predictors for the efficiency of training in firms, including design of training, various methods of training, ability or task features, and evaluation features (Arthur et al., 2003). DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis gives essential method of estimating the relative effects of present predictors on the dependent variable and this gives aggregated experiential results for studying and judging present studies.

The other strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis employing meta-analysis is its ability to offer strategies for selection of variables and designing the research in coming studies. Meta-analysis uses the chosen literature with experiential evidences. Such outlook has various utility. For instance, investigators can use such data to reflect on the present design and determine some hopeful variables for future research. They researchers in DeCoster (2009)used meta-analysis in developing new theoretical and hypothetical ideas founded on experiential evidence shown in meta-analysis permits researchers to improve and validate new theoretical philosophies based on experiential evidence revealed in meta-analysis for example moderators and interactions impacts(Joel et al., 2012). In summary, meta-analysis permits researchers to improve other theoretical ideas basing on likely attributes and features of all imaginable current studies. This is to say, meta-analysis can follow a research then theory strategy of building theory (Reynolds, 1971). Comparing with other strategies, the chief advantage of meta-analysis is that it is based on a number of proven empirical studies as witnessed in DeCoster (2009). For instance, meta-analysis is based on published works and not only one piece of research.

The other advantage of employing meta-analysis as research method originates from its function in the continuous development refinement of present theory. Through discovering and examining the important moderators and likely interactions impacts, meta-analysis gives solid conclusions about entailing other proven variables or discarding old, less significant variables in the present theories and theoretical models. Even though the demerits of employing meta-analysis are obvious, critics have been raised, entailing the possibility of introducing bias into findings sampling (Joel et al., 2012). Meta-analysis researchers ought to be alert of drawbacks in connection with this method.

When adding up the current developments in the field of individually controlled learning on one hand, and the strengths and restrictions of meta-analysis on the other, some implications for additional research become deceptive.

The outcomes of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis alone do not give enough bases for creating entire recommendations for an intercession. Obviously, other evidences not included in DeCoster (2009) are also needed (Joel et al., 2012). Succeeding chief research should be the re-evaluation of the integrative outcomes of the meta-analysis in an experimental setting. An intervention research ought to be established, which considers the outcomes of the meta-analysis of training studies dealing with the improvement of the educational self-regulation. In such a research, intervening with perfect characteristics ought to be assessed.

In the same way, DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis ought to be considered as an experiential study which synthesizes personal experiments quantitatively on the base of previous study objectives. Because meta-analyses are founded on a bigger sample size, the analysis tends to be more exact and dependable than any of the principal studies that they assess.

With regards to further exploration of the concept of self-regulated learning, it would be interesting to conduct a meta-analytical evaluation of the training studies. The evaluation should be aimed at fostering self-regulated learning. Furthermore, the evaluation should also be designed to synthesize on a smaller scale the experimental research on how learners acquire self-regulated learning skills. The main aim is in investigating single strategies more in depth, an action that was thoroughly carried out in DeCoster (2009). This is one of the greatest strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis (Joel et al., 2012).

Further, in order to advance the scope of the research in DeCoster (2009)’s field, conclusions established in adjacent research areas. The meta-synthesis of Hattie (2009), for instance, discovered that the effect of tutors on learners is bigger when equating the collaborative inspirations of learner, educator, instructional, and school factors. The outcome should be considered in the research on learners’ attainment of individual-regulation by examining the effect of educator feedback on learners’ individual regulation. In the assessment of training program, these issues should be combined into the involvements meant to foster individual-regulating learning.

Meta-analysis is no longer a new method. Among the main difficulties associated with meta-analysis is its dependence on the main studies involved. The information as reported by the authors is often not complete. For instance, information on certain important decisions taken may not be revealed(Joel et al., 2012). One way of solving this problem could be that authors provide the meta-analysis with their raw data when their study is being published (see e.g., Glass, 2000; Hattie et al., in press). This would allow the reviewers to work with these primary data and carry out additional analyses, whereby at least some of the limitations of meta-analyses as mentioned earlier could be overcome.

Until more sophisticated methods are established to synthesize literature, DeCoster (2009)meta-analysis approach can offer an important overview of the state of the art in a particular research field. They can also provide useful information about the effectiveness of interventions or, in more general field and provide useful information between two variables under investigation as witnessed in DeCoster (2009). Especially in a growing and evolving research field such as the area of self-regulated learning, procedures are needed that can structure the existing body of evidence and help to find comprehensive answers, while also facilitating the formulation of new hypotheses for future studies.

Interpretation of findings

In analysing the meta-analysis for validity, Rosenthal and Rubin ensured that their outcomes would not leak away under close examination. The validity of meta-analysis refers to the soundness of the original studies and the processes used in combining the data, and a minimum of three dozen possible validity leaks were identified in the processes. Studying all the likely faults, one can feel that the entire enterprise in DeCoster (2009) paper is desperate, but the condition is not bad, to alter metaphors, than that of an aircraft pilot reading a preflight (Joel et al., 2012).

References

Yang B., 2009.Research in Organizations c.21.Business & Economics / Management Science. Publisher Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Swanson, R., 2005. Research in Organizations: Foundations and Methods of Inquiry. The Berrett-Koehler Organizational Performance Series. Publisher Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Diana B. 1999. Meta-Analysis, Decision Analysis, and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis : Methods for Quantitative Synthesis in Medicine: Methods for Quantitative Synthesis in Medicine. Volume 31 of Monographs in Epidemiology and Biostatistics.Publisher Oxford University Press.

Polit, Denise F., Cheryl T., 2013. Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Practice. 8th Edition.Revised Publisher Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Ringquist E., 2013. Meta-Analysis for Public Management and Policy.Publisher John Wiley & Sons.

Harris M. Cooper, Larry V. Hedges, 1994. The Handbook of research synthesis, Volume 236.The Handbook of Research Synthesis.Publisher Russell Sage Foundation.

Joel M., Marc J., and Allan A., 2012.A Meta-Analysis of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Outcomes.Evaluating the Effects of Research-Specific Procedures.

Name

Professor

Course

Date

Evaluation essay

Introduction

People have differing views regarding the characteristics of a musician. For one, an accomplished musician should have superiority technical and aural skills. Additionally, an accomplished musician should be able to blend with the audience and create a rapport. However, the most notable characteristics of a god musician are to be able to control his game.

Controlling the audience

An accomplished musician should be in control his concerts. On of the most outstanding things is that an accomplished musician should not be moved emotionally by the audience. James can make his audience cry, joyously or frighten them; however, he must able to control his emotions. He does not feel any of these during performance. He is moved by his performance and consummated by the flow of the performance. , be he controls everything. It may be detrimental for a musician to be emotionally moved by the crowd. James Morison has fire in his voice but ice in his veins. This is what keeps him going even when the audience is dropping. During his launch of one life track, he moved women to cry, men dropped, and pandemonium broke loose. He kept on singing until the end of the shows, not moved a bit himself.

Technical and aural skill

While a talented musician should be proficient at playing a number of instruments, the policy of division of labor is easy; one does what he does best. Specialization is tremendously valuable. It is necessary for players to be able to know than to play the right tunes, by playing the right tune at the right time. This is mostly demanded in the orchestra, but it applies to all fields. Once a player knows when to play the right tune, they can do it naturally. The only examples on point are Elvis princely and James Morison. Both of these players never went to a music school; they play the guitar with a natural gusto. In his hit single, “You Give Me Something”, James set the tempo with his syrupy backing track of the guitar, piano and the brass, He knows how to set the tempo with his guitar riffing. He can easily improvise notes and tunes without creating discourse in his performance

Ability to create a rapport

For a musician to excel in his performance, he must know how to blend with the crowd. The audience is extremely significant factors in the success of a musician, for one, the musician must be able to determine the mod of the crowd and leverage it to his advantage. Rapport is extremely valuable. Once James has built a rapport with his audience, he knows which tracks to start with to set the mood, and while on gear; he introduces other lines to create a mood swing in his audience. The chemistry is just not imaginable and practical, so it is never rehearsed before the concert, it comes naturally. His may be something to do within his extroverted nature, but this does not lie on personality characteristics, but on psychology.

Choice of chords and style

Musician hold be able make the right choice of chord to be able to capture the crowd, however, the style of accompaniment is also noteworthy. Though tin is a matter of personal taste. It is also necessary to choose the right backing, a mixture if common chords may not move the audience, but if chosen well, is likely to endear the crowd. One can decide to use the common three chord trick, but additional voicing and relevant minor, in addition to modal chords is particularly appropriate in music.

Decision criteria

While the criteria are many, the choice of the best criteria is manly dependent on the who is evaluating whom. If it is the crowd evaluating the signer, then the ability to create a rapport is much more valuable. This is because; the singer easily identifies with the audience and provides them with exactly what they want. Just the right chemistry to keep them busy and committed. Some of the self confessed diehard fans of James Morrison say that they love him because, of the chemistry between him and his audience.

On the other hand, if an event management company carries out the evaluation, then the ability to control the audience is extremely beneficial because the event management team is much more interested in ensuring that the audience are moved. If an artist moves the audience, this may ensure longevity of contracts and shows. However, if the artist is self evaluating, he is likely to consider rapport, the technical and aural skill as well as the ability to control the crowd. The more, the artist can easily exploit the audience’s emotion, the better because at the end of the day, the audience is the x factor.

Conclusion

Ability to create and develop a rapport with the audience or crowd is the most notable in criteria for selecting the best artist. The audience is the reason why the showbiz is on; the revenue comes from the audience, and this makes the rapport the most significant criteria.

Evaluation Of Methods And Introduction Of Complementary Research Devices To Improve Research Robustness

Abstract

According to Kisfalvi (2003), Entrepreneurship has been conceptualized in a number of ways in literature, common ground has still not been found. Social scientists have embarked to study effects and reasons of entrepreneurial actions to find the essence of entrepreneurship, (Kisfalvi, 2003). Research on ‘true’ entrepreneurial behavior is scarce though, researchers agree that investigating this field could help solidify entrepreneurship theory, its delimitation from management and lay groundwork for studies on entrepreneurial efficacy and competence.

Referring to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Edmondson</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>809</RecNum><record><rec-number>809</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>809</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Edmondson, Amy C.</author><author>McManus, Stacy E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>METHODOLOGICAL FIT IN MANAGEMENT FIELD RESEARCH</title><secondary-title>Academy of Management Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Academy of Management Review</full-title></periodical><pages>1155-1179</pages><volume>32</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT literature</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT</keyword><keyword>QUALITY control</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>EXPERIMENTAL design</keyword><keyword>DATA analysis</keyword><keyword>METHODOLOGY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><publisher>Academy of Management</publisher><isbn>03637425</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=26586086&amp;loginpage=login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>Edmondson & McManus (2007), this paper provides that a research design based on field methods, in meticulous methods of observation, can be used to study and consequently code and evaluate behavioral scenario in entrepreneurship. A method to studying managerial behavior postulated by Henry Mintzberg’s (1968) proves a valuable starting point, however, an evaluation of the method based on Yin (1998) and ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gibbert</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>821</RecNum><record><rec-number>821</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>821</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gibbert, M. </author><author>Ruigrok, W.</author><author>Wicki, B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What passes as a rigorous case study?</title><secondary-title>Strategic Management Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strategic Management Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>1465-1474</pages><volume>29</volume><number>13</number><dates><year>2008</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>Gibbert et al. (2008) shows apparent lack of rigor in his proceeding. Consequently, the research design is updated and remedies as well as complimentary methods are introduced. These measures are integrated into a research approach which enables the generation of reliable and valid data on entrepreneurial behavior.

Table of Contents TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733400” Table of Contents PAGEREF _Toc229733400 h ii

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733401” List of Abbreviations PAGEREF _Toc229733401 h iii

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733402” 1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc229733402 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733403” 2Conceptual foundations PAGEREF _Toc229733403 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733404” 2.1The job of the entrepreneur as research focus PAGEREF _Toc229733404 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733405” 2.2Methodological fit of systematic observation in entrepreneurial settings PAGEREF _Toc229733405 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733406” 2.3Key concepts of scientific observation PAGEREF _Toc229733406 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733407” 2.4Using observation to generate data PAGEREF _Toc229733407 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733408” 3Evaluation of Mintzberg’s observation approach PAGEREF _Toc229733408 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733409” 3.1Internal validity PAGEREF _Toc229733409 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733410” 3.2Construct validity PAGEREF _Toc229733410 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733411” 3.3External validity PAGEREF _Toc229733411 h 10

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733412” 3.4Reliability PAGEREF _Toc229733412 h 10

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733413” 3.5Attainments of Mintzberg’s work PAGEREF _Toc229733413 h 11

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733414” 4Measures to improve rigor of systematic observation PAGEREF _Toc229733414 h 12

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733415” 4.1Clear definitions, epistemological foundations as well as pattern matching to improve internal validity PAGEREF _Toc229733415 h 12

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733416” 4.2Social learning theory as theoretical foundation for the research approach PAGEREF _Toc229733416 h 13

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733417” 4.3Multi-rater methods, in particular Delphi processes to code behaviour PAGEREF _Toc229733417 h 14

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733418” 4.4Methodological triangulation to enhance construct validity PAGEREF _Toc229733418 h 15

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733419” 4.5Larger sample size and clear rationale for case selection to enhance external validity PAGEREF _Toc229733419 h 16

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733420” 4.6Comprehensive and comprehensible documentation to improve reliability PAGEREF _Toc229733420 h 17

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733421” 4.7Overview of approach to studying entrepreneurial behaviour with systematic observation PAGEREF _Toc229733421 h 17

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733422” 5Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc229733422 h 18

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733423” 5.1Summary PAGEREF _Toc229733423 h 18

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733424” 5.2Directions for future research PAGEREF _Toc229733424 h 19

HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733425” References PAGEREF _Toc229733425 h 20

List of AbbreviationsAbbreviationFull term

e.g.exempli gratia (for example)

et al.et alteri (and others)

i.e.id est (that means)

p.page

pp.pages

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to analyze, evaluate and improve methodological rigor of field research for deployment in entrepreneurial settings. According to Edmondson and McManus (2007), Field research is defined as “systematic studies that rely on the collection of original data in real organizations” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Edmondson</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>809</RecNum><Pages>1155</Pages><record><rec-number>809</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>809</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Edmondson, Amy C.</author><author>McManus, Stacy E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>METHODOLOGICAL FIT IN MANAGEMENT FIELD RESEARCH</title><secondary-title>Academy of Management Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Academy of Management Review</full-title></periodical><pages>1155-1179</pages><volume>32</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT literature</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT</keyword><keyword>QUALITY control</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>EXPERIMENTAL design</keyword><keyword>DATA analysis</keyword><keyword>METHODOLOGY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><publisher>Academy of Management</publisher><isbn>03637425</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=26586086&amp;loginpage=login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Edmondson & McManus, 2007). This paper mainly focuses on systematic observation techniques as well as complimentary research devices to gather original data and a scientific process to generate activity categories. These methods fit the study of a research gap in entrepreneurship particularly well (see Section 2.2). Systematic observation has been used to explore and analyse a variety of subject matters, such as educational, healthcare and military institutions as well as political and economic actors (Sulsky & Kline, 2007; Yukl, 2005).

Henry Mintzberg pioneered the deployment of direct systematic observation in his seminal PhD thesis on managerial behaviour “The manager at work – determining his activities, roles and programs by structured observation” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mintzberg</Author><Year>1968</Year><RecNum>721</RecNum><record><rec-number>721</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>721</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Thesis”>32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mintzberg, Henry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Manager at Work – Determinig his Activities, Roles, And Programs by Structured Observation</title></titles><dates><year>1968</year></dates><pub-location>Boston</pub-location><publisher>Massachusetts Institute of Technology</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mintzberg, 1968). Since then, researchers have repeatedly relied upon systematic observation as a method to study and understand managerial behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Kotter, 1982; Kurke & Aldrich, 1983; Luthans, 1987; S. Tengblad, 2001a). ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007 , argue that entrepreneurship is a young discipline whose actual activities, tasks and behaviours of entrepreneurs have not yet been studied comprehensively, leaving a research gap which could be addressed by systematical analysis of data from systematic observation ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007).

The incorporation of typical advantages of case study research, like the coverage of events in their natural context, in real time, and the generation of detailed, voluminous evidence (Yin, 1998) have not saved the situation because still observation approaches have been criticized for several reasons in the literature. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Hales, 1986; Martinko & Gardner, 1985 denotes that limitations of observant research relate normally to problems of validity, lack of reliability checks, subjective coding methodology and a number of other conceptual problems ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Hales, 1986; Martinko & Gardner, 1985). The underlying research question for this chiefly methodological paper is thus:

R: How can we address the limitations of observational field research while preserving its methodological advantages?

To answer this question in the context of management and entrepreneurship, three main objectives subside. First, direct, systematic observation has been widely used to study managers but not to study entrepreneurs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Brown</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>817</RecNum><record><rec-number>817</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>817</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Brown, Travor C.</author><author>Hanlon, Dennis</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>U Newfoundland</auth-address><titles><title>Developing Behavioural Observation Scales to Foster Effective Entrepreneurship</title><secondary-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</full-title></periodical><pages>103-116</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>Human Capital</keyword><keyword>Skills</keyword><keyword>Occupational Choice</keyword><keyword>Labor Productivity J240</keyword><keyword>Firm Performance L250</keyword><keyword>New Firms</keyword><keyword>Startups M130</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Winter</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>08276331</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ccsbe.org/jsbe/</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=ecn&amp;AN=0743863&amp;loginpage=login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Brown & Hanlon, 2004). therefore, identification and address of the methodological issues in the scientific observation of managers can bring about research designs which, could make valid and reveal significant aspects of administrative or entrepreneurial behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot;Who Is an Entrepreneur?&quot; Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=5331834&amp;loginpage=Login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Schwehm</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>850</RecNum><record><rec-number>850</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>850</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Book”>6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schwehm, M. O. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship im internationalen Vergleich: Erfassung, Beobachtung und Erklärung</title></titles><dates><year>2007</year></dates><pub-location>Marburg</pub-location><publisher>Books on Demand GmbH</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007). Second, this paper aims at enhancing rigor of direct behaviour observation and behaviour coding approaches by methodically identifying weaknesses and strengths to consequently put in place measures to improve and advance the methodology for future fruitful use in the social sciences. Third, a gradual research framework shall be devised which can be applied in bridging a concrete research gap in entrepreneurial setting basing on the evaluation and development of systematic observation methods.

After the introduction, Section II will lay the foundation for the remainder of the paper. To substantiate the identified research gap, current issues in entrepreneurship theory will be reviewed briefly. Thereafter, methodological fit of an approach, in particular systematic observation and subsequent activity coding procedures to address the research gap shall be assessed. Finally, observation approaches as deployed in field research in management will be introduced as scientific methodologies. Subsequent to the fundamental groundwork laid out in Section II, Section III will evaluate the rigor of studies relying on structured observation by deploying Yin’s (1994) and Gibbert et al.’s (2008) suggested validity and reliability criteria. The analysis shall exemplarily focus on Mintzberg’s 1973 case studies on managerial behaviour, since they incorporate common weaknesses but also strengths of systematic observation and behavioural coding ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Brown</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>817</RecNum><record><rec-number>817</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>817</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Brown, Travor C.</author><author>Hanlon, Dennis</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>U Newfoundland</auth-address><titles><title>Developing Behavioural Observation Scales to Foster Effective Entrepreneurship</title><secondary-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</full-title></periodical><pages>103-116</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>Human Capital</keyword><keyword>Skills</keyword><keyword>Occupational Choice</keyword><keyword>Labor Productivity J240</keyword><keyword>Firm Performance L250</keyword><keyword>New Firms</keyword><keyword>Startups M130</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Winter</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>08276331</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ccsbe.org/jsbe/</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=ecn&amp;AN=0743863&amp;loginpage=login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Brown & Hanlon, 2004). Based on identified methodological and conceptual shortcomings, Section IV will suggest incremental remedies and complementary research devices to advance research designs featuring observation as a method to generate valid and reliable data on entrepreneurial behaviour for research and practice. Section V concludes the paper by providing a summary as well as directions for future research.

Conceptual foundationsThe job of the entrepreneur as research focusEntrepreneurship, although being a relatively young discipline, has been conceptualized in a number of different ways over the last decades ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>724</RecNum><record><rec-number>724</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>724</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship Hop</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>361-368</pages><volume>32</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>NEW business enterprises</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>STUDY &amp; teaching</keyword><keyword>RHYMING slang</keyword><keyword>HIP-hop — Influence</keyword><keyword>RAP (Music) — Social aspects</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00230.x</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=30033421&amp;loginpage=Login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 2008). More recently, its definition in literature has been predominantly processual: According to Fueglistaller et al. (2008) Entrepreneurship is a process which is initiated and executed by individuals to identify, evaluate and exploit opportunities. The entrepreneur is hence an individual performing these processes, succeeding with new products or production methods in the market and establishing new economic structures ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blanchflower & Oswald, 1998; Gartner et al., 1994) .

However, academic discourse about the terms and concepts entrepreneurship and entrepreneur has not settled ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fueglistaller et al., 2008; Gartner, 2001, 2008; Schwehm, 2007). as a result, researchers have embarked in a variety of directions to explain and conceptualize entrepreneurship phenomena, which can be summarized under the following three questions ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Stevenson</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>823</RecNum><record><rec-number>823</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>823</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Stevenson, Howard H.</author><author>Jarillo, J. Carlos</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A PARADIGM OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP: ENTREPRENEURIAL MANAGEMENT</title><secondary-title>Strategic Management Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strategic Management Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>17-27</pages><volume>11</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS literature</keyword><keyword>STRATEGIC planning</keyword><keyword>NEW business enterprises</keyword><keyword>INDUSTRIAL management</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS planning</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT — Research</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1990</year></dates><isbn>01432095</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=12496733&amp;loginpage=login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990)

What happens when entrepreneurs act? (Results of entrepreneurial action)

Why do entrepreneurs act? (Predispositions of entrepreneurial action)

How do entrepreneurs act? (Behaviours / actions of entrepreneurs)

According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Timmons</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Timmons, Jeffrey A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>New Venture Creation – Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century</title></titles><keywords><keyword>1080 Ent – Manage start-ups</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot;Who Is an Entrepreneur?&quot; Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=5331834&amp;loginpage=Login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote> Gartner, (1989); Timmons, (2002) the first two questions are investigated in the disciplines of economics and psychology / sociology respectively. While The third question, is best to be examined in the field of business management research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Timmons</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Timmons, Jeffrey A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>New Venture Creation – Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century</title></titles><keywords><keyword>1080 Ent – Manage start-ups</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>&quot;Who Is an Entrepreneur?&quot; Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory &amp; Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=buh&amp;AN=5331834&amp;loginpage=Login.asp&amp;site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 1989; Timmons, 2002). Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) suggest that management researcher should put into consideration what entrepreneurs do behaviourally and how they succeed as entrepreneurs. little has been published on this topic to this day despite almost 20 years having passed, recent research by Schwehm (2007) still claim for a focus on direct contemplation of entrepreneurs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schwehm</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>850</RecNum><record><rec-number>850</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>850</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Book”>6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schwehm, M. O. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship im internationale

Ahmaud Arbery’s Murder Case

Institutional Affiliation

Date

Abstract

Ahmaud Arbery’s murder, the selected case, is a recent crime event that has drawn significant national attention across the United States. His fatal shooting last year has sparked heated debates on gun rights and the limits of self-defense. Besides, the delayed arrest of the culprits has triggered nationwide discourses and criticisms over racial profiling in the country (Ellis, 2020; Wootson & Brice-Saddler, 2020). With the trial over Arbery’s death commencing more than one year after his murder, the media coverage of this case has been instrumental in broadcasting live trial updates to the public, illuminating what transpired in this case.

Ahmaud Arbery’s Murder Case

The Crime in Its Historical Setting

This section highlights the incidence, evidence, arrest, and events influencing the court involved, law enforcement agencies, and the media.

The Incidence

Ahmaud Arbery, a 25-year-old Africa American man, was killed on February 23, 2020, in Satilla Shores, a neighborhood in Brunswick, Georgia, while out jogging (Fausset, 2021). The main murder culprits were two white men who chased Arbery acting as vigilantes (Vila et al., 2021). They suspected that Arbery had perpetrated theft or burglary in Satilla Shores, thereby assuming that he was responsible for burglaries witnessed and reported earlier (Wootson & Brice-Saddler, 2020). Evidence later showed that these two white men were Gregory McMichael and his son Travis McMichael (Mckay, 2021).

The Evidence

Two pieces of evidence are critical to the historical setting of Arbery’s murder. The first is a half-minute long videotape on William “Roddie” Bryan’s cell phone. Bryan, the third murder perpetrator, used his cellphone to record Gregory and Travis, armed and in one vehicle, chasing and shooting at the unarmed Arbery. Bryan made this video recording while also pursuing Arbery in his own truck. In this video, Travis was seen opening the driver’s side door, exiting the vehicle, wielding the shotgun, engaging in a conformation with Arbery, and eventually shooting him (Fausset, 2021). This evidence has been crucial in the culprits’ trial because it shows Arbery was unarmed, besides revealing that Gregory and Travis indeed ambushed him (Ellis, 2020; Kasakove & Heyward, 2021). The second evidence is police interview transcripts, showing that Gregory confessed to initiating the pursuit after seeing Arbery run past his home and suspecting he was a burglar (Sayers & Pamela, 2021).

Influential Events

Three major events have influenced the court, the murder case’s media coverage, and law enforcement actions. The first is the circulation of the viral video detailing how Gregory, Travis, and Bryan pursued and shot Arbery. The second encompasses the public outcry, widespread national protests, community outrage, and demonstrations after Bryan’s video was leaked and publicized (Kasakove & Heyward, 2021; Laughland, 2021). The last event was the alarm raised by legal experts, activists, and politicians across the country over the delayed culprits’ arrest.

The Arrest

Following the public outcry, justice activism, and video evidence review, the Georgia Bureau of Investigation arrested Travis, Bryan, and Gregory for the murder (Kasakove & Heyward, 2021). Currently, the Bureau is investigating some local prosecutors (include Tom Durden) and law enforcement agencies for failing to make the initial arrest obtaining the video evidence (Ellis, 2020; Wootson & Brice-Saddler, 2020).

Crime Event’s Theoretical Analysis

The assemblage theory helps conceptualize and analyze Arbery’s murder case.

The Theory’s Premise

Félix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze originally developed the assemblage theory in the 1980s, positing that social constructions are assemblages of complex configurations of discrete, contingent, heterogeneous, partial, and unstable social elements that sequentially play roles in other, more extended configurations (Rey, 2012). Based on this proposition, a stable ontology for the social world is nonexistent. Since its development, the assemblage theory has been adopted in various social structures, fields, and formations such as race and racialization, explaining them as machinic and enunciative assemblages. While machinic assemblages relate the appropriations, utilizations, and transpositions of social elements, enunciative assemblages deal with the laws and transformations associated with social elements (Yu, 2013).

Within the racialization context, Alexander Weheliye adopted the assemblage theory to develop his concept of racializing assemblages. He held that race encompasses sociopolitical processes that anchor political hierarchies in human flesh to discipline humanity into complete humans, nonhumans, and not-quite-humans (Conley 2017; White, 2018). Accordingly, race is a social construction where an assemblage of stereotypical hardships, indignities against African Americans, their racial profiling, and other racism elements culminate in racialization (Vila & Avery-Natale, 2020; Vila et al., 2021). Scilicet, racialization occurs via a complex race-centered process that immanently emerge as a social assemblage’s outcome. In this assemblage, affects and emotions circulate to alter the assemblage’s elements, causing race materialization. These affects and emotions also dictate the enactment, materialization and performance of specific identitarian articulations that deny racialized groups certain privileges and capacities (Vila & Avery-Natale, 2020).

Theory Application in Arbery’s Case

Arbery is only one among many cases of Whites murdering Blacks in America under unclear circumstances. The assemblage theory and its linkage with the concept of identitarian articulations provides useful tools to better comprehend the occurrence of this crime event. Particularly, Travis, Bryan, and Gregory operated in a Neighborhood Watch assemblage that only anticipated that a Black individual in that vicinity only qualified to be felonious (Vila et al., 2021). When Arbery entered this assemblage during jogging, his overly racialized role as criminal constituted the identitarian articulation of his victimization. Since this identitarian articulation emerges as arrangements of bodies, identifications, objects, affects, and emotions that collectively actualize race on bodies (Vila et al., 2021), his identification by the culprits as a black body only articulated him as a racialized object. Accordingly, the perpetrators’ emotions of hate against the minority materialized their notion that he was a burglar, and tragically, death via murder became this assemblage’s capacity.

Media Involvement and Coverage of the Case

Numerous media outlets across the U.S. and other parts of the world have expansively covered this case since its occurrence. Examples include the New York Times, CNN, the Washington Post, and the USA Today, which have covered the case’s stages from investigation to disposition.

Role of Media Coverage in Case Disposition

The accounts and reports given by different authors and editors affiliated with these media outlets show considerable consensuses about how this crime started, transpired, and advanced to the final verdict. Their coverage also demonstrate unanimities in their reporting of the case facts, investigations, ongoing trial the jury’s deliberations and reasoning, validations for the verdict and determinations, and other criminal case prosecution phases. For instance, most of the media channels covering this case agree that during investigations that led to the arrest of Gregory, Travis, and Bryan, the video recording by the latter played a key role in the arrest, trial, and convictions (Fausset, 2021; Kasakove & Heyward, 2021; Mckay, 2021; Kennedy & Diaz, 2021). Indeed, the video evidence was central to the arraignment, indictment, and preliminary hearing, together with the trial and sentencing of the three, who were found guilty of murdering Ahmaud Arbery, with life imprisonment possibilities after federal trial in February 2022. The media exposure of this evidence was crucial in affirming to the public that the victim did not pose any imminent threat to the three because he was unarmed.

Relevance of Media Coverage of Arbery’s Murder

The case’s coverage by diverse media outlets has been relevant in four aspects. Firstly, the media have shed more light on rising racial profiling incidents. While evidence existed for months to warrant the filing of charges against Bryan and the McMichaels, the media unmask the district attorney offices’ deliberately failure to make arrests. This sparked and fuelled public uproar countrywide for what has been publicized as racial profiling and racial injustice against Arbery’s family while the killers remained free since the early 2020 (Ellis, 2020; Kennedy & Diaz, 2021). Secondly, the media bring to light judicial bias and intentional discrimination in the justice process of handling murder cases involving minority groups. As reported by some media outlets (Kennedy & Diaz, 2021; Laughland, 2021; Yang, 2021), there were already substantial concerns at the trial’s onset because defense attorneys eliminated nearly all Black jurors, leaving an almost all-white jury of eleven white judges and only one Black judge.

Thirdly, the media draw a clear picture of traumatic and costly outcomes of assumptions-based decision making in citizens’ arrests. The defense attorneys have sustained that the culprits were attempting to enact a lawful citizen’s arrest (Fausset, 2021; Sayers & Pamela, 2021; Wootson & Brice-Saddler, 2020). However, the evidence presented and reported in the media clearly shows that the perpetrators based their decisions and actions principally on assumptions that Arbery was a burglar. Such assumptions cost a life due to mistaken identity of a regular jogger. Lastly, the media have highlighted what has been termed the public lynching of the accused (Kennedy & Diaz, 2021; Laughland, 2021). Defense attorneys have held that the case has been marred by mistrial, arguing that media coverage and the presence of outside activists are influencing court proceedings, amounting to contemporary public lynching (Yang, 2021).

Perspective on the Media’s Effect on the Case Outcomes

The media coverage of murder cases and trials is essential in exposing instances of judicial unfairness. In Arbery’s case, the media have been pivotal to this end, exposing the intentional discrimination in the trial where almost all Black jurors were eliminated from the trial panel (Fausset, 2021; Sayers & Pamela, 2021). Also, the media coverage was indispensable in guaranteeing adequate validation of evidence. Through the media circulation of video evidence that fuelled public unrest, Georgia Bureau of Investigation engaged in deeper investigations and established the factualness of the evidence, leading to the arrests and possibly impartial murder case administration. Lastly, the media coverage helps reflect on laxity and failures in the fight against the racism pandemic, seeing that allegations of intentional bias and racism have continued to surround this court case.

References

Conley, T. L. (2017). Decoding black feminist hashtags as becoming. The Black Scholar, 47(3), 22-32. Doi: 10.1080/00064246.2017.1330107.

Ellis, N. T. (May 7, 2020). Why it took more than 2 months for murder charges and arrests in the death of Ahmaud Arbery. USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2020/05/07/ahmaud-arbery-shooting-video-prosecutor-arrest-mcmichael/3089040001/.

Fausset, Richard (November 24, 2021). What we know about the shooting death of Ahmaud Arbery. The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/article/ahmaud-arbery-shooting-georgia.html.

Kasakove, S., & Heyward G. (November 24, 2021). In the Arbery killing trial, video evidence once again played a crucial role. The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/24/us/arbery-video-evidence-murder-trial.html.

Kennedy, M., & Diaz, J. (November 24, 2021). 3 white men are found guilty of murder in the killing of Ahmaud Arbery. NPR Special Series: America Reckons With Racial Injustice. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/11/24/1058240388/ahmaud-arbery-murder-trial-verdict-travis-greg-mcmichael

Laughland, O. (November 24, 2021). Ahmaud Arbery verdict: three white men found guilty of murdering Black man as he jogged. The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/nov/24/ahmaud-arbery-verdict-guilty.

Mckay, R. (October 27, 2021). Factbox: Why a viral video is key evidence in trial of men accused of killing Ahmaud Arbery. Reuters. Thompson Reuters. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.reuters.com/world/us/why-viral-video-is-key-evidence-trial-men-accused-killing-ahmaud-arbery-2021-10-25/.

Rey, P. J. (2012). Assemblage theory. The Wiley‐Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization. 10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog032.

Sayers, D. M., & Pamela, K. (November 10, 2021). Detective testifies that Gregory McMichael told him he did not see Ahmaud Arbery commit a crime. Cable News Network (CNN). Retrieved November 26, 2021, from http://lite.cnn.com/en/article/h_84b94e956775e785ec542f70c5eacd76.

Vila, P., & Avery-Natale, E. (2020). Towards an affective understanding of processes of racialization. Ethnicities, 20(5), 844-862. Doi: 10.1177/1468796820909453.

Vila, P., Ford, M., & Avery-Natale, E. (2021). Ahmaud Arbery: Murder as the outcome of an assemblage’s enactment. Social Identities, 27(6), 1-17. Doi: 10.1080/13504630.2021.1975536.

White, E. J. (2018, November). Alexander G. Weheliye. Habeas Viscus: Racializing assemblages, biopolitics, and black feminist theories of the human. In Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies (Vol. 54, No. 4, pp. 541-543). University of Toronto Press. Doi: 10.3138/seminar.54.4.541.

Wootson, C. R., Jr., & Brice-Saddler, M. (May 9, 2020). It took 74 days for suspects to be charged in the death of a black jogger. Many people are asking why it took so long. The Washington Post. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/outraged-by-the-delayed-arrests-in-killing-of-black-jogger-protesters-in-georgia-demand-justice/2020/05/08/8e7d212a-90a9-11ea-9e23-6914ee410a5f_story.html.

Yang, M. (November 24, 2021). Ahmaud Arbery murder: five key moments from the trial. The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved November 26, 2021, from https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/nov/24/ahmaud-arbery-trial-key-moments-what-happened.

Yu, J. E. (2013). The use of Deleuze’s theory of assemblage for process-oriented methodology. Historical Social Research, 38(2), 196-217. Doi: 10.12759/hsr.38.2013.2.196-217.

Air Traffic Management: Air Quality around Airports

Name:

Institution:

Air Traffic Management: Air Quality around Airports

Air traffic management (ATM) encompasses all systems that assist aircrafts in taking off from airspace transit, and landing, including all aspects of aeronautical meteorology, controlling of air traffic, as well as air navigation systems. ATM continuously faces challenges in managing the increasing client demands for air transportation. Particularly, providers of air navigation services have the mandate of improving pertinent air control issues, enhancing safety of both workers and clients, as well as ensuring efficiency at reduced environmental costs. Air pollution has been associated with diverse health concerns as well as climate conservation challenges, making it an area of great importance in the management of air quality. It is therefore imperative that all relevant stakeholders including air transport leaders, manufacturers, as well as governments and governing bodies come up with mechanisms, including legislations, to ensure that air service providers focus on utilizing positive management practices for environmental conservation. Various pollutants, caused by aviation practices, affect the quality of air around airports posing a real health problem.

Overview of the Problem

Many aircrafts are designed to combust their fuel efficiently with very low emissions of smoke or non-combusted discharges. Most manufacturers fit aircraft engines with turboprop and turbofan to increase efficiency in fuel combustion (Thales, 2014). Despite all these improvements, the increase in air travel demand has overstretched the air transport industry with increased travel, making the realization of pollutant free airport environments a great challenge. Moreover, aircraft movements while on the ground, during landing and taking off, produce significant pollutant emissions, which affect the quality of air around airports (Thales, 2014). Road traffic, other machinery, such as forklifts, cranes, and other mechanical operations around the airport culminate into emission of high concentrations of harmful particulate matter and gases. This poses a health risk to communities living around the airport, including personnel and travellers. Moreover, this creates a significant threat to the surrounding natural environment and negatively affects the quality of air.

Some emissions, for example from combustion of jet fuel have been associated with negative health impacts, such as nasal, throat, larynx, lung, and brain cancers (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). Besides, emissions from aircrafts have a close association with the development of diverse infections that contribute to asthma, leukemia, lymphoma, and birth defects. This culminated into the European Commission proposing to bring air transport activities into EU Emissions trading Scheme in a bid to combat diverse climatic changes resulting from aircraft emissions (Keane, 2012). According to the commission, greenhouse emissions from the aviation industry increased by nearly eighty seven percent in the European Union alone, in the period between 1990 and 2006 (Keane, 2012). In fact, the commission proposed the taxation of air travel associated with emissions to ensure that total external aviation costs are taken into consideration.

Pollutants in the Environment Caused by Aviation

Of greatest concern is the emission of nitrogen dioxide around airport environments. Sources indicate this gas is the main environmental pollutant emission threat that has changed the global climate on an alarming scale (Owen et al., 2010). Usually, the emission of nitrogen dioxide follows increased ground activity by aircrafts, surface traffic, as well as other machinery operations within the airport. These produce nitrogen oxide, the precursor of nitrogen dioxide. In the lower atmosphere environment, nitrogen oxide contributes to ozone production. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is an important pollutant that greatly contributes to diverse unfavorable climates and global warming concerns. High altitude supersonic aircrafts produce nitrogen oxides that have been linked to the damage of the protective stratospheric ozone layer, which helps in the filtration of harmful solar radiations (Environmental Protection UK, 2012; Rojo, 2007).

Jet emissions contain particulate matter that affects the environment. According to studies, combustion of jet fuels culminates into the release of benzpyrene as a byproduct of incomplete combustion that normally comes out with soot (Rojo, 2007). This chemical is highly carcinogenic and has been shown to be a causative agent of many cancers as well as tumors in human beings culminating from skin and lung adsorptions. Besides, combustion of jet fuel has been associated with the production of high amounts of sulphur dioxide, a harmful gas that can cause severe irritation of the eyes and airway tracts. Literature indicates that jet fuel contains high concentrations of sulphur, nearly 1000ppm as compared to 10ppm in diesel (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). During combustion, this is converted into the harmful sulphur dioxide, which is transmitted into the atmosphere thereby compromising quality of air.

Other harmful emissions include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon dioxide. VOCs can include, for example benzene, which is carcinogenic, and some forms of aldehydes that can cause forms of skin, eyes, and air tract irritation (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). Volatile organic substances usually originate from vaporized fuel or incompletely combusted material that exits as exhaust gas. In some instances, the volatile compounds attach to particulate materials and escape into the air, culminating into compromised air quality around the airport. Carbon dioxide emanates from the combustion of organic fuels. It is a major contributor to climatic deterioration and global warming.

Sources indicate that this chemical is produced in large quantities from aircraft activities in the United States and other highly developed airports that have a lot of jet activity (Rojo, 2007). The resulting emissions find their way into the environment, adversely affecting the quality of air. This readily predisposes the populations living around airports, air travel personnel, and travellers, to dangerous environmental and health concerns. According to the Danish Ecocouncil (2012), jet emissions usually affect a radius of twenty-five miles around the airport area. This implies that communities, animals, and crop plants are dusted with toxic jet emissions within a distance of twenty-five miles away from the airport every day. Typically, airports spew toxic pollutants in hundreds of tons annually all over the world. Flow of air currents ensures that the toxic pollutants also reach water bodies where they negatively affect marine life.

Addressing Air Pollution resulting from Aviation

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is mandated with the setting up of international standards that govern the emission of certain pollutant gases and smoke for new aircraft engines. That notwithstanding, only minimal improvements have occurred in the aviation industry in the reduction of harmful gases and emissions, as compared to other sectors that also use fuel (ICAO, 2014). Consequently, there is a need for more proactive approaches to mitigate the problem. For example, the adoption of better engine types that encompasses selective catalyst reduction mechanisms and the recirculation of exhaust gas to ensure maximum combustion. Most gaseous and vapor emissions have been associated with incomplete combustion of fuels (Environmental Protection UK, 2012).

Therefore, increasing the number of recirculation cycles will ensure complete combustion and a reduced amount of harmful emissions.

It is also important to develop proactive policies that are consistent with specific concerns associated with air quality and environmental conservation similar to related approaches in other industries, such as automobile. Currently, policies governing aircraft activities and environmental concerns are less stringent than those that govern other sectors of the economy involved with fuel combustion, such as factories and the automobile industry (Kularatna & Sudantha, 2008). This could be partly because most pollution by aircrafts takes place in the higher atmosphere compared to automobiles and other engine activities on the earth’s surface. Integrating related aviation policies with those of the transport industry will achieve a common approach to environmental conservation.

Stakeholders, governments, and aircraft manufacturers should also review, develop, and adopt better aircraft technologies on a continuous basis to reduce the extent of air pollution and environmental concerns. In addition, plans should be in place to cater for expansion activities to reduce the overstretching of existing limited resources with increase in air travel demand.

Conclusion

Various pollutants caused by aviation practices affect the quality of air around airports posing a real health problem. Aircraft movements while on the ground, during landing and taking off, produce significant pollutant emissions, which affect the quality of air around airports. Besides, road traffic, other machinery, such as forklifts, cranes, and others, are also significant sources of air pollutants around the airport, posing a health risk to surrounding communities, air travel personnel, and travellers. Nitrogen dioxide, benzpyrene, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic compounds are examples of harmful environmental pollutants caused by aviation. It is important to establish positive mitigation policies by all stakeholders, governments, and aircraft manufacturers to come up with proactive approaches aimed at air pollution reduction around airports.

References

Environmental Protection UK. (2012). Aviation pollution. Retrieved from: www.environmental-protection.org.uk/committees/air-quality/air-pollution-and-transport/aviation-pollution/

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). (2014). ICAO Strategic Objectives 2014-2016. Retrieved from: www.icao.int/about-icao/Pages/Strategic-Objectives.aspx

Keane, J. (2012). The aviation industry, the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme and Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly frameworks. ODI Project Briefings 76. Retrieved from: www.odi.org.uk/publications/6749-aviation-industry-eu-development-friendly-emissions-trading-scheme

Kularatna, N., & Sudantha, B.H. (2008). An Environmental Air Pollution Monitoring System Based on the IEEE 1451 Standard. Sensors Journal, 8(4), 415-422.

Mark J. U., & Mark W. F. (2000). Acute health effects of ambient air pollution: The ultrafine particle hypothesis. Journal of Aerosol Medicine, 13(4): 355-359.

Owen, B., Lee, D.S., & Lim L. (2010). Flying into the Future: Aviation Emissions Scenarios to 2050 . Environmental Science & Technology 44(7), 2255-2260.

Rojo, J. (2007). Future trends in local air quality impacts of aviation. Retrieved from: dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/39707

Thales. (2014). Air traffic management. Retrieved from: https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/aerospace/air-traffic-management.

The Danish Ecocouncil. (2012). Air pollution in Airports: Ultrafine particles, solutions and successful cooperation. Retrieved from: www.ecocouncil.dk

Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand

Name

Professor

Institution

Course

Date

Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand

Introduction

Aggregate demand is the total sum of goods and services in an economy within a given time and price. Aggregate supply is the total sum of goods and services supplied during a specific time in an economy. When aggregate supply equals aggregate demand, then the result is termed as equilibrium in macroeconomic models. Does this situation always occur?

Aggregate Supply/Aggregate Demand Model

The Aggregate Supply/ Aggregate Demand (AD/AS) model is useful for evaluating the conditions and factors that affect the level of Real Domestic Product (GDP) and inflation. The factors affecting aggregate demand include level of income, wealth, population, interest rates, credit availability, government demand, taxation, investments, etc. Those that affect aggregate supply are costs, labour wages, recourses available, productivity, and expectations like profits, inflationary and interest rates. According to Keynesian economics, not all GDP investment sums as part of aggregate and demand thus there would be reduced national output and income when there is unplanned investment.

Production process sometimes produces excess goods that result in reduction in prices or demand. So when aggregate expenditures are not equal to aggregate production, this results in changes in prices. This situation is where buyers and the sellers are out of balance. The household, government are unable to purchase all the real production that the producers have and are unable to sell. Disequilibrium simply means an imbalance between total demand and total supply in production. Equilibrium aggregate market is the state where the real aggregate expenditures are equal to real production. This implies that real expenditures and or production do not change, i.e., the opposing forces of aggregate demand and aggregate supply is in balance.

The aggregate supply curve does not usually change independently as the aggregate demand curve does. The aggregate supply curve equation does not contain factors that are directly related the price level or level of output. The aggregate supply curve contains only factors derived from the AD/AS model.

Shifts in the Aggregate Demand Curves

If the demand curve moves towards the left, the total sum of quantity of goods and services needed at any given price levels falls, this is termed as the economy contracting. Consumption and investments lead to a shift to the left. The changes include increases in taxes, making consumption to decrease, or an increase in the savings rate would also have the same effect. Economic expansionary policy changes the aggregate demand curve to the right while economic diminishing policy shifts the aggregate demand curve to the left. Short period total supply movements to the left only affect change in total demand and a change of the price level. The convergent point where the immediate grand supply curve and the total demand curve meet is always the new equilibrium. Thus, expansionist policies causes output and the price level to increase in the short run, but only the price level to move upwards in the long run. The opposite case is found when the aggregate demand curve shifts to the left. When demand changes, the economy always moves from the long-term equilibrium to the short-term equilibrium, and then back to a new long-term equilibrium position (Palley, 1997).

Changes in the supply curve are few, unless in response to the aggregate demand curve. Sometimes a supply shock can occur, e.g., Increases in oil prices, drought, union strikes, etc where the short run supply curve shifts without prompting from the demand side, thus changing the price level of a given amount of output. A positive supply shock causes the price for a given amount of output to reduce. This is represented by the movement of the absolute movement of the supply curve to the right.

Disequilibria between Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand

There are varied factors that cause the condition of disequilibria. These include consumer nominal wealth increases, technology and education increase, planned investment spending, business profit expectations decrease, employee wages increase, etc. Others could be government purchases increase, temporary increases in oil prices, labour endowment increases, permanent increase in business regulations, national income abroad increases, net export spending decreases, prices of raw materials temporarily increases, as well as personal taxes increase (Palley, 1997).

There are many different kinds of buyers, that both rich and poor who want consumer goods and the private companies who want investment goods. Therefore, private households spend their wages on consumer goods. Households may not buy all of the commodities that have been produced, but the workers cannot afford. There is a possibility that investment demand will be high enough to compensate for the insufficient level of workers plus capitalist demands for consumer goods. There are so many times of economic upswing where capitalists expect aggregate demand to rise and ensure they enjoy the demand. They may opt to increase production by expanding investments. If they realize that the demand is not high enough for consumer goods, they will cut back their investment plans. Thus will to lower prices will not bring aggregate demand level up to the level of aggregate supply. Capitalists will still need to have total profits and turnover to remain constant, which will make disequilibria persist. In a competitive economy, some companies will lower their prices and other will not. Those who lower the prices will enjoy a larger share of aggregate demand, which may force the other firms also to cut prices which eventually does not solve the problem of over production. Again, firms with lower productivity will have higher costs, and hence lower profits. On the contrary, productive firms may lower prices and concede some of their profit which may lead to bankruptcy the firms that cannot lower their prices. This causes a condition known as decentralization of capital (Palley, 1997).

High end, high cost technology can only be afforded by large corporations help them increase production and continually give them a higher share of economic activity at the expense of the smaller firms. This leads to a condition known as monopoly capitalism that leads to poor people to struggle to make ends meet. Under consumption harms both rich and poor, as large companies do not make as much money when their products are not needed, and poor people don’t have money to spend and the rich do not spend all the money they have.

Neoclassical and Capitalist Economic Theories

Neoclassical economics is an ideology and not a science, Capitalists’ economies are expansionary by their nature, that every aspect of life must be subjected to the rule of the market. The capitalist will do anything that will drive profits and that is why the poor will get poorer and the rich richer.

According to Dutt, & Skott, (2005), capitalism seeks out those who love it and neoclassical economist love capitalism. Corporations, media, think tanks, governments, and international financial institutions hire capitalist because they cannot go against their own believes. Feudal economies that preceded capitalism had people with fixed and hereditary roles to play while in capitalism making money is the way of life.

Capitalist will even employ children provided they are cheap and considers humans as commodities. It creates a universal class of persons and this was one of the reasons for the French Revolution. The cardinal need of the capitalist is the accumulation of capital and a surplus extracted from the workers by their employers confirms exploitation. This economy would need a surplus production over consumption in terms of money and total revenue generated in production would be greater than the wages paid to the workers. This is because new machinery and equipment wear out and have to be replaced. On the contrary, new equipment and machinery have to be built for the economy to grow, and money must be available to fund consumption like schools, health care, roads, public transportation, etc. Many social scientists today believe that capitalism is gradually transcending government, i.e., Governments no longer control and regulate capital accumulation (Samuelson, &. Nordhaus, 1985).

Governments are also necessary for the production of certain outputs essential for the capitalist production but the markets themselves will not cause to be produced. This is because, not a single capitalist will be sure to reap all the benefits of particular investment, e.g., Like state providing national defence, building roads, bridges, lighthouses, port facilities, airports, railroads, and general education for the work force. Marx argued that continued development of capitalism would only sharpen and increase the misery of workers, but on the contrary, purchasing power of workers has increased since Marx death. Though, he insisted that capitalism systematically prevented individuals from realizing their full potential. The labour time spent in production would not create a commodity with an exchange value equal to the labour time put into it, i.e., producing commodities that have no demand and they would only permit to produce only commodities that at least realize their cost of production. Market demand would determine not only what commodities were produced but also the relative quantities in which they were produced.

Conclusion

Samuelson, & Nordhaus, (1985), surplus value originated from the fact that capitalists bought one commodity and sold a different one. Profits were realized in the senses that labour power was less than the value of the commodities produced with the labour power. Just like with every other commodity, the labour time necessary for its maintenance and reproduction implied that the value of the subsistence necessary for the maintenance of the labourer at a socially defined standard of living. The average working day of a labourer exceeded the time necessary for a labourer to produce the value equivalent of his subsistence wage, which enabled the capitalist to appropriate the surplus produced over and above his subsistence.

Concentration of wealth and economic power in the hands of a few capitalists results into competition amongst themselves. This created a situation where the strong either crushed or absorbed the weak. As technology improved, there was an increase in the minimum amount of capital necessary to carry on with business. Thus to remain competitive, an organisation has to increase the capacity and productivity of its workers. This creates a scenario where changing technology, as well as competition amongst capitalists moves capital to fewer capitalists widening the gap with the majority of the society (Samuelson, & Nordhaus, 1985).

References

Samuelson, P, &. Nordhaus D, (1985). Economics. 12th ed. NewYork: McGraw Hill.

Dutt, K. & Skott, P. (2005). “Keynesian Theory and the AD-AS Framework: A reconsideration,” Working Papers 2005-11, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Economics.

Palley, T. (1997). “Keynesian theory and AS/AD analysis”. Eastern Economic Journal, Fall.

Evaluating the micro-economic implications of sanctions in Russia

Student’s Name

Professor

Institution

Location

Date

Evaluating the Micro-Economic Implications of Sanctions in Russia

A sanction is an action taken by a country or countries against another country or other countries for political motives (Rourke, 2011). These reasons can be either multilateral or unilateral. There are several different forms of sanctions that can be imposed on the country, which include economic, diplomatic, sport and military sanctions. This paper looks economic sanctions, which include a ban on trade, limitation to sectors such as armaments, and there are exceptions provided on items such as medicine and food. This paper will delve into the micro-economic consequences of sanctions on Russia.

In the world today, many countries have shifted from planned to free market economies. The former economic system in Russia was based on communist ideology, and it has changed over time to the capitalist system of economy. The recent developments in economic sanctions imposed on Russia are considered a significant signal that America and its allies in Europe are acting. However, this is considered a risk even in their economies (Nicholson, 2010). The sanctions are to punish Moscow for instigating the current state of instability in Ukraine and arming the separatists.

According to Armendariz and Morduch (2010), an economic system that uses capitalism is characterized by a free market that does not experience interference from the government. In this case, the prices of goods and services in the market are guided by demand and supply to achieving equilibrium. Most economists prefer a free market because of the several benefits that is attached to such market such as there is free entry and exit of organizations that want to operate in such a market. In addition, some barriers such as trade tariffs are not present, therefore encouraging exports and import of goods, which in turn boosts the economy of the country.

However, Armendariz and Morduch (2010) argue that the change from one economy to another is very complex and most economies would get help from the government in order implement the changes. In the case of Russia, the transition to a free market economy from a planned economy began at the time when the Soviet Union had collapsed in the early 1991. During this time, most industries were privatized in order to make them more productive. With the change to a free market system in Russia, the sanctions have had various implications to the economy (Columbus, 2013).

The first implication is on trade barriers, which affects the trade between Russia with international communities. The sanctions have led to an economic slump of 3% compared to the previous years. The United States and its closest European allies have imposed sanctions on Russia and it is now having trouble trading with its neighbouring countries and the international community. This has affected its growth domestic product, which has dropped from the previous years, bringing the economy to a standstill. No growth has been registered in the economy as a result of the sanctions. The sanctions that have been established by the international community have restricted imports of goods into Russia and some businesses have been driven out of the market. For example, some sanctions include import quotas, which block the importation of goods. The quotas include subsidies, total ban, tariffs, and import duties (Rourke, 2011).

The next implication of micro-economic sanctions in Russia is that the quotas restrict particular type of goods from entering the Russia, which might result to dumping. As a precaution to this menace, the government can implement anti-dumping tariffs in order to prevent the market from unworthy goods. That is because the government would be working to fight cheap imported goods than those that have been manufactured locally. In addition, import quotas play a crucial role protecting the new and upcoming industries in Russia since imported goods and products are usually of high value and can sometimes be a threat to new and developing industries in the country.

Economic sanctions affect social variables, such as income distribution, poverty and -public health. The income distribution is one way through which the country’s economy can record a growth in GDP. However, with the sanctions in Russia, the country’s income distribution is greatly affected and the poor are continuing to suffer more as the rich grow. The gap between the rich and the poor is expanding by the day, which makes it hard for the nation’s GDP to grow. Income distribution is one factor that contributes to an increase in poverty levels in a country. Russia’s poverty index has been on the rise as a result of the imposed sanctions in the country. Most people have been rendered jobless because of the cut down on employees, which end up increasing the rate of poverty in the country. The two social factors affect the health care sector. When a country‘s development drops, the health care system is affected negatively. Since most people are below the poverty line, it affects their ability to access better health care.

Amongst the affected sectors by the sanctions in Russia is the banking and finance sector. The sanctions have dealt a big blow to the banking industry in Russia, where VTB bank was the most affected. VTB bank is the nation’s gateway for international investments in the banking business. The bank was set up in the in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis after the exit of the Western investment bank of the country. The sanctions make it hard for the VTB bank to operate in the international markets since countries or organizations are willing to do businesses with the bank. These sanctions are used to push Russia into economic hardship and to make change its position about the Ukrainian civil unrest. The sanction has created a 1.1% slump in the growth rate of the banking sector while the value of the Russian Rubble has depreciated steadily against the US Dollar, thus affecting Russian companies that pay their debt with the dollar as the main currency. According to forecasts by the Central Bank of Russia, it was revealed that the performance of the banking sector would be slow for at least 6 months before it stabilizes after the sanctions are withdrawn. This is a long duration that will affect the performance of the overall economy of the country (Columbus, 2013).

The economic sanctions have a great implication on entrepreneurship, business, and Small and Medium Entrepreneurships in the country. Doing business in Russia has become very difficult and most investors are shifting base and moving to other nations. Entrepreneurs are failing to invest in the country as they are afraid of what could happen to their investments in case the economic sanctions continue. The sanctions have created a very negative investment environment that has left the country relying on local entrepreneurs. Small and Medium Entrepreneurships are also affected by the imposed sanctions and business is not as usual.

The economic sanctions affect the whole population in a very diverse manner. For instance, a great number of people will lose their jobs. The unemployment rate will rise drastically as most companies would retrench their members in order cut down the cost of labour. Since the companies are already hit by the dollar rate when making their payments and it is for that reason that the companies are trying to cut down on the wage pay given to the workers. The amount saved is used to run the companies so that they do not become bankrupt.

Unemployment is one of the main causes of insecurity in most countries and this is what has affected the Russia economy. Crime rate has increased since the sanctions were imposed. The exchange between input and output leads to a natural interest rate. Because the interest rates are natural, it is easier for different stakeholders to operate in openness and trust. To attain macro-economic stability, the prices of commodities must be stable. Employment opportunities must be available and growth must be rapid. However, experts agree that monetary policy has the capacity to “produce real effects on output and employment only if some prices are rigid.” The economy runs on a multiplier effect that incorporates many monetary outputs and inputs (Columbus, 2013).

The pulp and paper production is a great part of the economy of Russia. The country’s capacity to produce and manufacture paper products is considered one of the key pillars of the economy. However, with the sanctions that have been imposed on the country, the paper industry is collapsing and the country’s GDP is falling steadily. Bardhan and Udry (2013) ascertain that America ought to intervene in the crisis that Russia has put itself in order to salvage the production of consumable products. The main aim in doing this is to ensure that Russia learns a lesson and it promotes democracy and transforms into a world economy.

There are negative impacts of sanctions on companies and organizations. Russian companies and organizations have not been left behind. These parties have been affected by the inflation and interest rates that have been increasing since the slapping of sanctions on Russia. Inflation affects the performance of businesses as a budget is made at the beginning of a financial year. In fact, companies end up spending more than they had planned due to inflation (Rourke, 2011). The increased interest rates also affect the performance of these companies and organizations. As a result, the overall performance is also affected as well as the country’s economy.

Despite the sanctions imposed by the international community, Russia is still on the verge of getting the country back on track. In the past years, the Russian economy has undergone an economic transformation, which led to a significant growth in its GDP, especially in 2009. In order to maintain this growth, Russia is trying to play an important role to ensure that the industries are developed. This is because these industries act as the backbone of the country, especially in terms of employment opportunities and without them the economic performance will be affected (Nicholson, 2010). The government has also tried its best to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) into the country, especially in the oil and gas sector, which is the industry that is considered to provide the largest exports in Russia.

In the move to improve the economy, Russia has introduced trade barriers that are aimed at safeguarding the economy and promoting development and growth of different sectors within the country. These measures are aimed at improving the role the country plays in the world economy. This improvement of the economy is hoped to have an impact on alleviating poverty. Poverty mitigation is among the key factors that Russia has considered in the new economic plan it has drawn for its development (Bardhan and Udry, 2013). When poverty is eradicated, there would be affordable products in the market and the production levels would also increase, which will ultimately have a positive effect on the country’s GDP.

In conclusion, with the imposition of economic sanctions on Russia, there are certain factors that are affected in the country that are essential to run a progressing nation, including international partners, investors, and trade barriers among others. However, the government of Russian needs to put in places a central governing bank for it to gain independence and stability in the financial sector, which is one of the most important sectors in a country. In addition, the government should be cautious when implementing its foreign relations policy vis-à-vis its economic policies in order to avoid situations that would attract economic sanctions from the international community.

References

Armendariz, B., & Morduch, J. (2010). The economics of microfinance. Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press.

Rourke, J. T. (2011). International politics on the world stage: John T. Rourke. Guilford, McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

Columbus, F. H. (2003). Russia in transition: The Economic Challengees. New York, Nova Science Pub.

Nicholson, W. (2010). Intermediate microeconomics and its application. (New Edition). Fort Worth, Tex, Dryden.

Bardhan, P., & Udry, C. (2013). Micro-theory. The Concept of Economics and Sanctions. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.], MIT Press.

CHAPTER ONE

EVALUATING THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW: A KENYAN CASE

ABSTRACT.

This research paper centers on protecting and upholding the fundamental rights and freedoms of children who have been deprived of their liberty.The purpose of recognizing and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms is actually to preserve the dignity of individuals, as it is clear that human rights and fundamental freedoms as provided for in the constitution of Kenya 2010 belong to each individual and are not granted by the state. It is the responsibility of every government to protect the rights of its citizens. However, children in conflict with the law are more susceptible to violations of their rights while in detention, either in police cells, prisons or authorized detention centers they mostly suffer from acts of state representatives especially when subjecting children to physical, psychological or other examinations for the purposes of gathering evidence, some of this assessment processes are highly demeaning and invasive forms of secondary systemic abuse. This violations often occur behind closed doors and thus difficult to notice despite the constitutional and the human rights law guaranteeing their rights.

The research therefore seeks to examine what rights do children in conflict with the law have under international law generally and also within the regional human rights law. It will also seek to find out whether these international human rights instruments are given effect domestically and if yes, it will go ahead to answer the question how? Of interest too will be to establish if there are challenges in realizing these rights and how our municipal laws have tried to grapple with the issue of protecting the rights of children in conflict with the law. Most importantly, I will also wish to suggest alternative ways of dealing with this group of children apart from the normal juvenile justice system which has proved to be traumatizing. These are the main issues I wish to tackle with a view of making recommendations for better protection of the rights of this group of children.

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The paper seeks to address the problem of abuse of the rights of children in conflict with the law; historically children have had few constitutional rights of their own when pitted against the state or their parents because both of the latter are presumed to be more capable of deciding what is in the child’s best interest. From the constitutional concept of power donation to the state we deduce that it is the responsibility of every government to protect the fundamental rights and freedoms of its citizenry.The purpose of recognizing and protecting human rights and fundamental freedom is to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, promote social justice and the realization of the potential of all human beings. Article 19(3)(a) of the supreme law of Kenya 2010 is an all inclusive article as far as human rights and fundamental freedoms are concerned. It seeks to cover every individual with the umbrella of rights and fundamental freedoms complying and having a direct link with article 27 (4) of the same document providing that the state shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, duress, language or birth. Furthermore, the government is under an obligation to see to it that the rule of law and justice prevails at all times, it is of essence and of great significance to note that children are the greatest resource of a country and thus need protection. Article 53 (1) d of the constitution adds its voice on this school of thought bringing out its importance. However, there are the unwanted children of the system when in conflict with the law they are more often than not direct victims of abuse by officials in the criminal justice system as well as the inmates, but more broadly they are neglected due to government failure to provide protection for them despite the fact that there are clear international standards setting out how they should be treated. These violations always happen (behind) closed doors and society being primarily concerned with keeping offenders locked up rather than about their conditions and human rights being respected, the cries of these children to be treated with dignity and worth go unnoticed. It is now clear that the officers in the juvenile trial system are failing to use the knowledge available to them in properly dealing with the children in conflict with the law and as a result, the fundamental human rights are contravened.

Furthermore, the paper seeks to explore ways and avenues on how possibly it can be ensured that children rights as human beings are not abused merely because they are in the class of the vulnerable. Every person has got inherent dignity and carries with him the right to get it respected and protected. It will also suggest possible reforms to the law regime to ensure its consistency with both regional and international human rights instruments to which Kenya is a signatory as well as the new constitution of Kenya 2010 .There is a need to review Kenyan laws dealing with children and specifically come up with detailed provisions that seek to address the issue of children in conflict with the law and how to help them when they find themselves on the wrong ends of the law. This is in an attempt to put them in line with the requirements of the new constitution of Kenya 2010 especially to safeguard against possible human rights violations. Chapter four of the constitution of Kenya 2010 provides for the bill of rights that should be enjoyed by all persons without discrimination. Going by the provisions of Article 21(1), it is obligatory for the state and every state organ to observe, respect, protect, promote and fulfill the rights and fundamental freedoms in the Bill of Rights. Under article 21(4), the state has the duty to enact and implement legislation to fulfill its international obligations in respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Article 25 of the constitution provides for the fundamental rights and freedoms that may not be limited, of interest is the freedom from inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Historically, children charged with crimes in Kenya were treated in the same way as adult offenders it was a common thing for children to be arrested and detained in prison for long periods of time waiting for trials. Kenya is a signatory to the international convention that seeks to protect the rights of children, however, the situation for children in conflict with the law, especially those in detention centres has not changed a lot for the better. They continue to suffer from cruel inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment at times due to the high incidence of police brutality and inadequate statute or procedure dealing with children charged with offences. However, a lot of effort is being made by the government by trying to foster the reform of the juvenile justice system and protecting both the rights of these children on one hand and that of the public on the other hand, to ensure compliance with both the constitutional and international obligations.

1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Historically, children have had few constitutional rights of their own when pitted against the state or their parents because both of the later are presumed to be more capable of deciding what is in the child’s best interest. A closer study of the repealed constitution of Kenya reveals that it lacked specific provisions relating to the protection of children in all spheres. Similarly, the new constitution has just an article which addresses the plight of children, generally, and those in conflict with the law. Not long ago children charged with crimes in Kenya were treated in the same manner and way as adult offenders. It was common for children to be arrested and detained in prison for long periods of time awaiting trial. In terms of statute, it is very evident that we have had legislations in the area of child protection; for instance, the Guardianship of Infants Act, the Adoption Act, the Children and Young Persons Act and most recently, the Children Act which has repealed all the above statutes. None of these legislations deals solely with the issue of protection of children in conflict with the law.

The Children Act brings together in one law all requirements of guardianship, fostering and adoption, custody and maintenance, care and protection, the role of parents and the government in promoting and protecting the rights of the child and juvenile justice.The act is a great improvement in the promotion and protection of the rights of the child. However, there are still several issues that it has not solved inter-alia corporal punishment and the minimum age for criminal responsibility.

As regards international human rights law, Kenya is party to the international and regional instruments protecting the rights of children including those in conflict with the law; for instance, the Convention on the Rights of a Child and the ACRWC.However, the situation for children in conflict with the law especially those in detention has not changed a lot for the better. They continue to suffer from cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment and punishment sometimes due to high incidence of police brutality and inadequate legislation to ensure their protection.

It is for this historical as well as the developments in this area that Kenya is chosen as a comparison to assess the level of compliance with international obligation as a country in democratic transition.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

It is the aspiration of all Kenyans for a government based on the essential values with an emphasis on human rights, equality, freedom, democracy, social justice and the rule of law. It thus goes without saying that the government has got an obligation to protect the national values as listed under article 10(2) b of the constitution. Of interest being the human rights and fundamental freedoms and to ensure that at all time the rule of law and justice prevails. However, bearing in mind that children are in the class of the vulnerable they are more susceptible to abuses and violations of their fundamental rights. They are mostly discriminated against on the basis of their genderand they face inhumane treatment from the agents of the state as well as the inmates. It becomes almost impossible to detect such contravention of their rights as they occur indoors. To add insult to the injury our legal framework focuses very much on locking up offenders rather than about their rights being protected and respected. Thus the cries of these children to be treated with dignity and worth goes unnoticed despite the international and constitutional obligations which requires them to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. Article 53(1)f requires that children should not be detained except in circumstances where it’s the only option and even when detention is effected, it should be for the shortest appropriate period of time and separate from adults and in conditions that take into account the child’s sex and age.

The issue or rather the problem is first to examine what rights do children in conflict with the law have under international law, the municipal laws, and the African human rights system with special emphasis on the rights of children deprived of their liberty. Secondly, to suggest other options that are available in dealing with children in conflict with the law apart from the normal detention and the usual juvenile trial system, which is sometimes very intimidating and traumatizing to the children involved. Thirdly and lastly, to examine how these international instruments are granted effect domestically and whether there are challenges encountered in realizing these rights. These are the main issues that this work wishes to deal with using Kenya as a reference point with a view of doing recommendations for better protection of the rights of this particular group of children.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study seeks to answer the following questions;

What rights do children in conflict with the law have under international law, generally, and also within the regional human rights law?

How are these international human rights instruments given effect domestically?

What are the challenges that we face in realizing these rights?

How do our municipal laws address the issue of protection of children in conflict with the law? Are they adequate?

What is the level of compliance with the international law standards as set out by the convention on the rights of a child (CRC) and the African charter on the rights and welfare of the child (ACRWC)?

1.5 HYPOTHESIS.

The research presumes that there have been efforts in Kenya to enact laws to realize the protection of rights of children in conflict with the law in line with our international obligations but they are not adequate

Where the law exists, the mechanisms for protection are not effective

Due to the inadequacies in the laws and the system generally, the rights of children in conflict with the law are overlooked with a touch of impunity.

1.6 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objective of the research is to analyze the laws put in place in Kenya aiming at protection of children in conflict with the law in accordance with their international obligations secondly it wishes to look into the challenges of addressing the issue at hand, and as a way of recommendations and conclusion suggest ways to better protect the rights of these class of children.

1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

For viable conclusions and recommendations, the following methods will be employed to carry out the research. There will be secondary methods like data analysis of documented reports and discussion papers by various local and international commissions as well as human right scholars. There also will be a review of authoritative decisions in these areas both in Kenya and in other jurisdictions.

The sources relied upon will be both primary and secondary. These will include relevant statutes, human rights textbooks, instruments on human rights and publications, case law(both Kenyan and foreign where applicable) and internet sources.

1.8 CHAPTER BREAKDOWN

I wish to have four substantive chapters for this research considering the time set by the university exam body for this particular research paper. The first chapter is basically an introduction. The chapter tries to give the basis and structure of the research which includes a general overview of the problem in Kenya.

The second chapter will seek to compare the rights of children deprived of their liberty as provided for in the municipal laws vis a vis the minimum standards set out in the CRC and the ACRWC. It will subsequently discuss the following issues; the application of international law in Kenya, the role of the courts in children proceedings, the constitutional protection of the rights of children in conflict with the law, state`s obligation and enforcement mechanisms in Kenya, other statutes that seek to protect the rights of children in conflict with the law, other methods available in dealing with children in conflict with the law other than the normal juvenile trial system and detention which is sometimes very traumatizing and intimidating. Definition of a child,minimum age of criminal responsibility, detention as a last resort, best interest of a child, role and responsibility of parents, special criminal procedures, challenges of implementing the laws, separate laws or statutes for children in conflict with the law, the sentencing provisions, lack of adequate facilities for children and lack of adequate trained personnel to deal with children in conflict with the law, resource allocation , poor coordination and implementation mechanisms.

The third chapter intends to explore the relevant international and African normative framework that protects the rights of children in conflict with the law and the obligations of states towards those children. However, the main focus will be the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC).

The fourth chapter will conclude and make recommendations on how best to implement the laws and who should be the role players in ensuring that the rights of these children are well protected.

CHAPTER TWO

PROTECTION OF CHILDREN IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW IN KENYA

2.1 The application and status of international law in Kenya

The relationship between international law and the Kenyan domestic law is provided for in articles 2(5) and 2(6) of the new constitution of Kenya 2010,Article 2(6) is rather conditional it expressly provides that any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under the constitution .In simple terms, article 2(6) seeks to explain that international agreements can only be binding to the state after they have been approved by the national assembly and have been acceded to, in other words after ratification , we presume that the international instrument has been enacted (domesticated) into municipal law.

General rules which may have acquired the force of law include the principles of sovereign equality of states; territorial integrity; customary international law; puncta sun savanda Kenya is a party to a number of treaties, also qualifying as valid norms in the newly structured legal system.

The new constitution envisages these provisions as regards the application of international law in Kenya, however, what remains unclear is whether the new constitution provides for a dualist or monist dispensation, for most of common wealth Africa the concept of dualism thrives, under dualism treaties are not counted as part of municipal law until transformation or incorporation has occurred as illustrated by article 2(6), article 2(5) On the contrary is a general provision with no restrictions at all. The contradiction between the two articles 2(5) and 2(6) is what forms the basis of the unclarity that exists on the question of whether the Kenyan constitution provides for a monist or dualist dispensation.

The original rule for the principle of (dualism) was laid down in the case of Okunda v Republic (1970) EA 512. In this case, the high court limited the sources of law in the country to those listed in the judicature act,a similar decision was arrived at in the case of Pattni & Another v Republic (2001) EKLR 262, In this case, the court held that these instruments much as they could be of persuasive value, were not binding in Kenya save for where they could be incorporated into the constitution or other written laws, in reaching the decision the court made reference to the International covenant on civil and political rights(CCPR),the universal declaration of human rights(UDHR) and the African charter on human and people’s rights(African Charter)

M Kiwinda Mbondenyi and J Osogo Ambani in their book` The new constitutional law of Kenya –principles, governance and human rights’ do note that three verifying questions have been suggested to test the extent to which international human rights norms have been domesticated in African states; first whether international human rights norms are part of domestic law; second, where such norms feature in the hierarchy of the municipal national legal order, in case they are applicable and third, whether domestic courts apply them in their decisions, the two cases discussed above do suggest that before the new constitutional dispensation international instruments did not form part of Kenya’s legal order. Norms enacted outside Kenya first had to go through either the process of incorporation or transformation to have legal effect municipally. This could be illustrated by the transformation of the convention on the rights of the child (CRC) and the African charter on the rights and welfare of the child into Kenyan law In this regard, the Children Act is:

An Act of parliament to give effect to the principles of the convention on the rights of the child and the African charter on the rights and welfare of the child and for connected purpose

As much as evidence in form of case law in Kenya suggests that international law generally did not have legal influence, the Kenyan courts could not help it, but to refer to them in some selected cases for instance the court of appeal in Mary Rono v Jane Rono stated that` international law could be referred to even in the absence of an implementing legislation provided there arises no conflict with any other existing state law’ in another decision with a similar holding Re The Estate of Lerionka Ole Ntutu (Deceased) Justice Rawal took the trouble of explaining that the decision arrived at by his brother Justice Waki in Rono v Rono was inevitable owing to principle 7 of the Bangalore principles on the domestic application of international human rights Norms, in the same breath Nyamu and Ibrahim JJ in RM v AG stated that international law could be applied where there was no conflict with national laws.

The new constitutional dispensation tends to tilt the balance from the dualist nature to the monist one, however, it does not define the place of international law within the hierarchy of norms that constitute the legal system but only expresses the supremacy of the constitution above all other laws in article 2(1) and 2(4) these means that the laws are harmonised, the theory of harmonization hence provides the best theoretical and practical explanation for the application of international law in Kenya.

As a concluding remark in this discussion the harmonization theory is an upgrade of the monist theory where we assume that international law is part of national law and ipso facto does not require transformation or incorporation for utilization in the domestic courts the theory is careful to clarify that neither international law nor municipal law has clear cut supremacy over the other this is where we are as a state, owing to the new constitution’s article 2(5) and 2(6).As discussed above before the enactment of the 2010 constitution, international law was applied restrictively,but with the new constitution in place we now have created an avenue to apply it without restrictions since international law now forms part of the national law by dint of articles 2(5) and 2(6), with the free application of international law in Kenya, we can now be able to make good use of the convention on the rights of a child(CRC) and the African charter on the rights and welfare of a child (ACRWC) in protecting children in conflict with the law.

It is therefore submitted that pursuant to article 2(5) and 2(6) of the Kenyan constitution, provisions of the CRC and the ACRWC can be relied on by the courts when interpreting the bill of rights therefore, where constitutional rights of children deprived of their liberty are violated, the courts can seek guidance from these international instruments to interpret those rights.

Therefore the CRC and the ACRWC binds Kenya, including other binding and non binding international law. Similarly when interpreting statutory legislation affecting rights of children deprived of their liberty, the courts must adopt interpretations that are consistent with the CRC, ACRWC and other relevant instruments.

The place of international law in the hierarchy of valid norms under the 2010 Constitution; the question of which takes precedence in case of a conflict

This part of the research has the modest object of addressing the issue of which law ought to take precedence when there is a conflict between the provisions of international law and municipal law, the theoretical issue is normally presented as a clash between dualism(or pluralism) and monism. Both these schools of thought assume that there is a common field in which the international and municipal legal orders can operate simultaneously in regard to the same subject-matter, and the problem then is, who is to be master?

The general rule as regards this issue is that international obligations not incorporated into municipal law have no legal force, in the case of Okunda v Republic a superior court of record held that international law is not a source of law in Kenya, which position is still being upheld by courts of law, as demonstrated in a fairly recent jurisprudence, Pattni & Another v Republic where the high court again established that international norms, much as they could be of persuasive value are not binding in Kenya save for where they are incorporated into the constitution or other written laws.

Consequently international law may not have been invoked directly before courts of law as they have yet to be transformed into internal laws or administrative regulation to have a binding effect. At best what the courts do is to make reference to these international instruments and standards,in Amanya Wafula, Ndungi Githuku & Another v Republicone of the few cases where the courts of law have made reference to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Charter) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the judicial tribunal still gave credence to the claw back clause in section 80 of the repealed Constitution which requires domestication of international human rights instruments and standards before their municipal application, similarly in referring to international law the court in Rono v Rono stated that international law would apply as long as there arose no conflict with domestic laws, a similar decision was rendered in Re Lerionka ole Ntutu where Rawal j stated that international law could be applied where it does not conflict with national laws.

In Re the matter of Ziporrah Wambui Mathara a bankruptcy cause no 19 of 2010 Koome J, stated that all international instruments ratified in Kenya are part of our municipal laws vide Article 2(6) of the Constitution on the other side of the coin the court was explaining that all other international instruments not ratified in Kenya are not part of our municipal laws thus cannot be applied, and for that reason the court found it to be proper and in order to apply Article 11 of the international convention of civil and political rights, similarly justice Nicholas Ombijo in the case of the international commission of jurists Kenya chapter v the Attorney General and another stated that since the Rome statute had been ratified by Kenya it was obvious that it now formed part of the Kenyan law vide Article 2(6) of the constitution and for that reason Kenya had an obligation to perform its international obligations under the said Rome statute which includes arresting the sitting president of the republic of Sudan Mohammed Al Bashir against whom arrest warrants had been issued by the international criminal court(ICC) in case he steps foot on Kenyan soil.

To that extent, I can then comfortably argue that the application of international law in Kenya does depend on the aspect of ratification, any international instrument not ratified by Kenya is just a persuasive kind of legislation and courts are not bound to apply it as it was held in Okunda v Republic (1970)EA 512. Ratification of international law Makes the international instrument to acquire domestic law status and thus can be applied by the Kenyan courts comfortably, in case of a conflict between the municipal law and the international law, the court will have to consider several factors in identifying the law which has to apply, among the factors to consider is, one whether the international instrument has been ratified in Kenya, a factor which has been considered intensively in all the case law discussed above, and secondly if the international instrument protects the human rights of any of the concerned party to an extent of which overlooking the international instrument will cause a breach of that parties rights as it was held in Wambui mathara’s case.

It is therefore submitted that for any international instrument to apply in Kenya ratification of that instrument into Kenyan law is a must, the implication of this particular condition or rather requirement is that municipal laws are superior to international laws and for us to apply them freely the way we do apply municipal laws then it is imperative that we domesticate the international instrument for it to be on the same standards with the municipal laws

It therefore means that in case of a conflict between municipal laws and international laws then municipal laws would take pre-eminence or rather will be master over the international law if it is not domesticated in Kenya, and even if it is acceded to it can only be used as reference but the general rule is that Kenyan courts are not bound to apply international laws we put more emphasis on our municipal laws than the international law.

2.2 The protection of the rights in the Kenyan constitution

Constitutions in most cases will be judged on how effectively they secure fundamental human rights and liberties inter-alia the rights of children in conflict with the law. So crucial are the human rights that in Kenya’s context the problems of the bill of rights in the repealed constitution was a prominent reason why the people opted for a constitutional review in the first place, the chapter on the bill of rights was replete with limitations littered with `claw-back’ clauses that often defeated the whole essence of having the chapter on the bill of rights.

As regards the protection of children in conflict with the law, chapter five of the repealed constitution did not expressly encompass other fairly important genres of rights inter-alia children rights, and rights of persons with disabilities, social economic rights were conspicuously absent .However, the bill of rights under the 2010 constitution is envisioned to have an all round applicationencompassing all the genres of rights Including the rights childrengenerally and those in conflict with the law, persons with disabilities, youth, marginalized groups and older members of the society.

The rights of children under the 2010 constitution of Kenya can be divided into two major groups namely the general and specific rights , Article 53 deals specifically with the rights of children including those deprived of their liberty. The article can be said to be reflecting the whole essence of the CRC. It also states that the best interest of the child are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child, this echoes one of the most important principles of the CRC and the ACRWC which must be the guiding principle of any decision in respect of children deprived of their liberty .In the Fitzpatrick case it was emphasized that the best interest rule should not be given exhaustive content, the standard should be flexible in order to cater for the needs of specific children circumstances.

The constitution provides that every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care to be protected from abuse neglect harmful cultural practices all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment and hazardous or exploitative labour. The provision relating to basic nutrition prohibits poor nutrition of children at any period of time including when deprived of their liberty.

The constitution also provides that children in conflict with the law must not be detained except as a me

Aggregate supply

Author

Institution

Aggregate supply is a measure of the volume of commodities and services that an economy has a capacity to produce at a certain price level. The short run aggregate supply curve depicts the amount of output that an economy is capable of producing in the short term at various price levels. The short run aggregate supply curve is upward sloping because input prices tend to adjust at a slower rate than that of the final goods; this leads to higher profit, which makes firms to increase production. Besides, the short run aggregate supply curve is upward sloping since some firms tend to adjust prices at a slower rate than others (Mankiw, 2008). This makes such firms think their sales are increasing and thus increase their production. On the other hand, the long run aggregate supply curve depicts the volume of commodities and services produced by an economy in the long term in relation to different price levels. Unlike the short run aggregate supply curve, the long run aggregate supply curve slopes vertically rather than sloping upwards. In this assignment, short run aggregate supply curve and long run aggregate supply curves together with variables that move them will be discussed. In addition, the macroeconomic equilibrium in the long run and short run will also be discussed.

The short run aggregate supply curve shows a relationship between the volume of commodities and services and price levels that an economy is capable of producing, in the short term. This curve is upward sloping; as the price level rises, firms increase the quantity of commodities and services supplied. Alternatively, as the level of price drops, firms tend to decrease the volume of commodities and services supplied (Mankiw & Taylor, 2006).

Reasons Why the Short Run Aggregate Supply Curve is Upward Sloping

One of the reasons why the short run aggregate supply curve is upward sloping is because of sticky wages. Some economists have a perspective that wages are inflexible, or sticky. This is based on the opinion that wages become locked in for some years because of the labor contracts entered into by employees and management. For instance, the management and labor may reach an agreement of locking in wages for the following one to three years because they may see this as being for their best interest. The management has an idea regarding the cost of labor during the period of the contract while; on the other hand, workers have a sense of security since they know that their wages will not become lowered during the contract period. Besides, wages may also become sticky because of perceived notions of fairness or certain social conventions. When there is a change in the economy, the wages paid to workers, do not adjust immediately because of the contract that exists (Mankiw, 2008). So, when price level increases, the nominal wage remains fixed while the real wage falls since the real wage is based on the purchasing power associated with the wage. A fall in the real wage implies that labor becomes relatively cheaper than before. Firms choose to hire more workers, when labor becomes cheaper which increases their level of production. Therefore, when there is an increase in the price level, output increases due to sticky wages.

Another reason for the upward sloping nature of the short run aggregate supply curve is because of worker mis-perception. The amount of work that a worker wills to supply is usually based on the real wage that is expected; the workers are always willing to supply more work at a higher real wage. So, when the price level increases, there is an assumption that firms have more information than workers, which will lead to firms increasing the nominal wage. However, because workers are not aware whether the price level increased, they believe that their real wage has also increased. Workers tend to work more, when they believe their real wage has increased, which leads to an increase in production. Therefore, an increase in price, increases the level of output because of worker mis-perception.

Imperfect information is another explanation for the upward sloping nature of the short run aggregate supply curve. When there is an increase in the level of price, producers take it for a relative price level increase (Mankiw, 2008). The real wage earned by the producers rises as relative price increases; this makes producers to supply more labor leading to an increase in the output produced.

Variables That Move The Short Run Aggregate Supply Curve

Expected Changes in the Future Price Level

The short run aggregate supply curve shifts in order to reflect firm and worker expectations of future prices. When workers and firms expect the price level to increase, they adjust their wages by the same amount that the price increases. Keeping all other variables that affect the aggregate supply, the short run aggregate supply curve shifts to the left when the future price levels are expected to rise. A graphical representation of this is as illustrated.

Price LevelSRAS2

SRAS1

P2

P1

Output

When the price level is expected to rise from P1 to P2, the short run aggregate supply curve shifts to the left from SRAS1 to SRAS2.

Capital Stock or Labor Force

An increase in the capital stock or labor force implies that firms are capable of producing more output at each price level (Mankiw & Taylor, 2006). Therefore, an increase in the capital stock or labor force will shift the short run aggregate supply to the right as illustrated; the short run aggregate supply curve will shift from SRAS1 to SRAS2.

Price level SRAS1

SRAS2

Output

Productivity

The quantity of output produced determines the cost utilized in producing an output; the lower the productivity, the higher the cost of producing the output and the converse is true. Therefore, an increase in productivity will shift the short run aggregate to the right since it will lower the cost of producing the output. The illustration is as shown; the short run aggregate supply curve will shift from SRAS1 to SRAS2.

Price level

SRAS1 SRAS2

Output

Expected Price of a Vital Natural Resources

The price of producing a certain output is based on the cost of the input. When the price of an input increases, the cost of producing an output also increases. Therefore, when the cost of a vital natural resource is projected to rise, firms are likely to increase the price level of the output; this will have an effect of shifting the short run aggregate supply curve to the left since the cost of producing an output is also expected to rise. Therefore, if the price of a vital natural resource is expected to rise, the short run aggregate supply curve will shift from SRAS1 to SRAS2 as depicted in the illustration.

SRAS2 SRAS2

Price level

Output

The Long Run Aggregate Supply Curve

The long run aggregate supply curve shows the level of real output at every possible price level. The long run aggregate supply curve is vertical in nature since, in the long run, prices of resources have already adjusted to the price changes, which implies that there is no room left for incentive for firms in the long run to change their output. Therefore, price is assumed to have fully adjusted in the long run and thus the price has no effect on the volume of output produced.

Variables That Move the Long Run Aggregate Supply Curve

Any change in the economy, which alters the natural rate of output is deemed to shift the long run aggregate supply curve. Shifts of the long run aggregate supply curve is deemed to be caused by the following variables; capital, labor, technological knowledge and natural resources.

Labor

An increase in labor implies that there is an increase in output. For instance, an increase in the number of workers leads to an increase in output since the workforce increases. An increase in output causes a shift in the long run aggregate supply curve to the right. Alternatively, a decrease in labor implies a decrease in the workforce which leads to a decrease in output. The decrease in output causes a shift in the long run aggregate supply curve to the left. The following illustrations show a graphical representation of increase and decrease of labor.

Increase of Labor

Price Level LRAS1 LRAS2

Output

An increase in labor leads to an increase in output, which forces the long run aggregate supply curve to shift from LRAS1 to LRAS2.

Decrease in Labor

A decrease in labor leads to a reduction in the volume of output, which shifts the long run aggregate supply from L1 to L2 as follows;

Price Level L2 L1

Output

Capital

An increase in capital stock in an economy increases productivity, and thus the volume of commodities and services supplied. As a result of the increase in the volume of output, the long run aggregate supply curve shifts to the right. On the other hand, a decrease in the capital stock, in an economy, leads to a reduction in productivity that causes a reduction in the volume of output. The reduction in output makes the long run aggregate supply curve to shift to the left. A graphical representation of the effect of capital is as depicted in the following illustrations.

Increase in Capital

As a result of an increase in capital, output increases leading to a shift in the long run aggregate supply curve from LRAS1 to LRAS2 as illustrated.

Price Level LRAS1 LRAS2

Output

Decrease in Capital

A decrease in capital causes a reduction in productivity, which implies that there is a decrease in output. The decrease in output makes the long run aggregate supply curve from LRAS1 to LRAS2 as shown.

Price Level LRAS2 LRAS1

Output

Natural Resources

The production of an economy usually depends on the available natural resources, which include minerals, weather and land. Discovery of new minerals shifts the long run aggregate supply curve to the right as a result of increase in output. Besides, a change in weather that favors farming practices increases output leading to a shift in the long run aggregate supply curve to the right. The following is a graphical representation of the effect of a new discovery of a vital natural resource.

Price Level LRAS1 LRAS2

Output

The discovery of a new vital resource in an economy increases productivity, which leads to an increase in the volume of output. An increase in output makes the long run aggregate supply curve shift from LRAS1 to LRAS2.

Technological Knowledge

Growth in technology is positively related to increase in production. For instance, the invention of the computer has aided in increasing the output. Therefore, the adoption of emerging technologies will lead to increased output, which shift the long run aggregate supply curve to the right. The following graphical illustration is a representation of the effect of technology on the long run aggregate supply curve; the long run aggregate supply curve shifts from LRAS1 to LRAS2.

Price Level LRAS1 LRAS2

Output

Macroeconomic Equilibrium in the Short Run and Long Run

An unanticipated decrease in aggregate demand, in the short run, will cause an excess supply of resources that will cause a decline in the price of resources. Unemployment is likely to increase as prices go down and output will decline. Over a long period, lower resource costs will lead to shifting of the aggregate supply to the right (Stonecash, 2011). The economy will produce a level of output consistent with the full employment, but at lower price levels. On the other hand, an unanticipated increase in the aggregate demand, in the short run, will lead to a level of output, which is greater than a level consistent with the full employment. This is because the price levels tend to be different from the levels anticipated by providers of resources. In this case, the unemployment will be less than the natural rate. Besides, there will be an upward pressure on interest rates and price of resources, which will lead to a decrease in the aggregate demand in the long run. Providers of resources are likely to make adjustments to new price levels and output will decline to match a level consistent with the full employment. A fresh market equilibrium will become established at a higher price level. Hence, in the long run, higher prices (inflation) will become the chief effect of the increase in the aggregate demand.

A decrease in the short run aggregate supply, in the short run, will decrease the availability of resources. This will cause an increase in the price of resources, which will lead to the shifting of the aggregate supply curve of commodities and services to the left. A decreased output level will be produced at soaring prices. In case the cause of the decrease in short run aggregate supply is temporal, then there will be no changes in output or prices in the long run (Stonecash, 2011). However, if the cause is more vital, then the long run supply curve is likely to shift to the left. In such a case, the economy will produce few commodities and services at higher prices. In the short run, an increase in the aggregate supply will lead to shifting to the right of the short run aggregate supply. Income and output will expand beyond a level consistent with the full employment at lower price levels. In case what produced an increase in aggregate supply is temporal, the short run aggregate supply curve will return to the normal levels while the output and prices will remain as before. In case what caused the change is permanent, both the long run aggregate supply curve and the short run aggregate supply curve will shift to the right. There will also be a greater volume of output at lower prices (Stonecash, 2011). Therefore, a decrease in the aggregate demand, in the short run, causes a recession while it causes a decrease in the price level, in the long run.

Conclusion

The short run aggregate supply curve shows the volume of output, which an economy is capable of producing in the short term at various price levels. The curve is upward sloping because input prices correct at a slower rate than that of the final goods; this leads to a higher profit, which makes firms to increase output. Besides, the short run aggregate supply curve is upward sloping because some firms tend to adjust prices at a slower rate than others. The long run aggregate supply curve shows a relation of output at specific price levels. This curve is vertical in nature since the prices have already adjusted. While price level has an effect on the short run aggregate supply curve, prices have no effect on the long run aggregate supply curve. Therefore, a shift in the long run is caused by other variables other than the price, which include, technology, capital stock, labor, and new discoveries of vital natural resources.

References

Stonecash, R. E. (2011). Principles of macroeconomics. South Melbourne, Vic: Cengage Learning.

Mankiw, N. G., & Taylor, M. P. (2006). Economics. London: Thomson.

Mankiw, N. G. (2008). Essentials of economics. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Agile Methodologies

Name

Institution affiliation

Agile Methodologies for Software Development:

Agile software development is a collective group of software developments in which solution and requirements evolve through collaboration between cross-functional teams and self-organization. It promotes evolutionary development, adaptive planning, continuous improvement, early delivery, and flexible response and encourages rapid to change. It is a conceptual framework that emphasis on frequently delivering growths of working software

Advantages of Agile model:

One of the advantages of agile model development is the ability to evolve and emerge, and the ability to embrace change. In agile model development the focus is more on building the right product. In an active Corporation, involvement, and collaboration manner this makes agile model development a team as much as enjoyable place for many individuals. As a result this helps to develop a highly inspired and performance team (Dybå & Dingsøyr, 2008, p. 12).

Disadvantages of Agile model:

There are several shortcomings and risks that are associated with agile method. The biggest shortcoming of agile methodology is how they handle large teams. Highsmith and Cockburn concluded that agile technology is very difficult for larger teams since size grows and coordinating interfaces becomes a prevailing concern. They also believed that agile with face-to-face communication breaks down and later become more complex and difficult with developers (Nerur, Mahapatra, & Mangalaraj, 2005, p. 31).

Implementation Process:

In agile development or implementation process there exist a tension between cost, quality, and time. As one progress from design, analysis, testing, coding and production, it is evident that the cost of solving a problem increases exponentially. When fixing the problem it will be realized that there will be an increase in cost after production, a cost of roughly 50 to 100 times more than eradicating the problem in the design face. It is also evident that when reducing this cost, it is recommended that one should use heavyweight methodologies so that a lot of time is spent in an open requirement gathering. Although with time it cost less to implement a change with XP than it will cost to implement with the traditional methodology (Nerur, Mahapatra, & Mangalaraj, 2005, p. 41). In order to reduce the cost during implementation it is advisable to follow the following step during implementation process:

Test-driven development and unit testing ensures that the errors and bugs are found early and quickly so that it would be cheaper to solve.

Functional testing and on-site customer testing is important since it ensures the specification and analysis of the system is precise and up-to-date with the business/users requirements.

Pair programming must be used since it allows two or more developers working together on a single computer to increase the chance of lead to a simpler model/design or finding the bugs.

Increasing design consistency and refactoring improves flexibility and simplicity to the structure during implementation of the model since it ensures that the system is easy to use and well-designed.

Regular release of agile model feedback from both the customer and the production team during implementation phases helps to make the product cheap as possible in order to be used by many people.

The principles of agile project management are in discomfort of the high cost of fitting errors keeping in mind the specifications, design features, fast track feedback and outstanding implementation. However, according to Laurie Williams, this does to transcend to the fact that agile process is there to increase or decrease the cost development as compared to traditional process such as heavyweight. Based on figure 1 below, Laurie is able to document the above information in graphs to help explain further about the above concern. In Figure 1 graph a, it shows the expense that arises from traditional methods over a certain period. It also elaborates that most of the expenses come from new development and some of the revision that is undertaken in the process development cycle. Contrary to figure 1 a, 1b shows an Agile (XP) method expense structure (Dybå & Dingsøyr, 2008, p. 24).

Here the content of information is opposite because it shows extra spending on the revisions and less on the development process. With reference to both the graphs it is clear that there exist the same level of expense that occurs over the same time. William stipulates that, robust anecdotal evidence is reliable, but depicts that extra revision does not supersede the expense that come with upfront requirements such as engineering, designing and planning. One of the most difficult tasks that come with the use of agile process is the introduction of the process into a firm or organization that has been using a traditional structure for many years (Dybå & Dingsøyr, 2008, p. 66).

The problem of change to agile model is directly reflected to the managers who are required to persuade and advise employees on the merits that come with adoption of agile method. This is because agile processes come with different issue such as a different culture known as [The Big Design Up-Front] culture. For example, this culture comes with freedom within the program structure. Therefore, such organization should understand that implementing an agile process will mean that the organization will change its functions and also change the employees and funding profile as well in the organization.

Comparison with other Methodologies

Aboriginal methodologies have been around for a considerable amount of time. Since its introduction, the Waterfall Model has been used within a small and a larger set of software programs. This methodology has been successful for many projects, hence considered as an added advantage to many organizations, currently as well as those that used them previously. However, despite the benefits that come with this method, there are various demerits that come with it such as inflexibility is adopting its requirements, high formal process that come irrespective of the project sizes amid other drawbacks (Highsmith, 2002, p. 77).

The drawbacks highlighted in the Waterfall methodology was boosted by Kent Beck, who took into account of these drawbacks and was able to come up with extreme programming; this is the first form of agile methodology produced. Agile methods are flexible hence able to work with unstable and volatile requirements by adopting a number of techniques that focuses on partnerships between clients and developers to support early and fast delivery (Highsmith, 2002, p. 101). 

Application of agile model

Agile model has been widely used for development of several software products since most of them use certain features of software, such as object technology. Nevertheless, these models can be practical to the development of non-software products e.g. motor vehicles, food, clothing, computer, and medical devices.

The model can also be applicable in other areas of life e.g. raising children. It has been successful in child development due to its basic management principles such as awareness, adaptation, and communication. Agile model development can be applicable to raising children as well as household management (Paetsch, Eberlein, & Maurer, 2003, p. 23).

References

Dybå, T., & Dingsøyr, T. (2008). Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review. Information and software technology, 50(9), 833-859.

Highsmith, J. (2002). Agile software development ecosystems. Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc..

Nerur, S., Mahapatra, R., & Mangalaraj, G. (2005). Challenges of migrating to agile methodologies. Communications of the ACM, 48(5), 72-78.

Paetsch, F., Eberlein, A., & Maurer, F. (2003, June). Requirements engineering and agile software development. In 2012 IEEE 21st International Workshop on Enabling Technologies: Infrastructure for Collaborative Enterprises (pp. 308-308). IEEE Computer Society.