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European Parliament

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European Parliament

The European parliament have undergone through a remarkable evolutionary phase in the recent past decades. This is from the original AECSC (Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community) which was least empowered in decision making especially within the EU council into the current day status as an equal partner with EU council within basically all areas of policy making. The parliament initially carried only a consultative purpose but reforms experienced in the 1970s empowered it into a legislative body just as is the case with other parliament of the world. It was that empowered to enact laws of the land and these powers improved greatly after the ratification of Lisbon treaty (Clerck-Sachsse and Kaczyński, 2009, p. 1-2; Cooper, 2011, p. 1-4). Among other credits given to the parliament is its Endeavour to protect human rights within or even outside the confines of the union and has been using its power to ensure fundamental rights of persons are realized. It thus carries supervisory powers, budgetary powers as well as the legislative powers (‘The EU Civil Society Contact Group’, 2009, p. 1-4; Norton, 2007, p. 7).

The empowerment of the parliament is credited on two basic elements of empowerment, which are rulings by the ECJ (European court of justice) on the powers of EU institutions as well as formal treaty reforms that has taken place. The parliament developed own rules of procedure which had an impact on the judicial rulings (European Union, 2010, p. 2-8). For instance, back in 1957, the parliament had absolutely limited powers and had been set up by the government as a partial decision maker, which meant that the government would involve it while consulting for decisions and would as well ignore it. This therefore triggered the pursuit of its empowerment in the 1970s with direct election and budgetary reforms shaping the initial elements of empowering the parliament. Previously, the parliament was a composition of ‘part time delegates’ from other parliaments and therefore, the improvement to direct election ensured full responsibility of the chamber. Because of such empowerment, the parliament was acknowledged as an active participant in decision making on national policies and the court of justice actively involved the parliament in barely all matters of policymaking and such decisions, which previously partially involved the contributions from the parliament (Hix and Høyland, 2013, p. 172-173).

The 80s represented a period of increased empowerment to the parliament towards empowering it to carry the powers as it contains today. It is the world’s most sophisticated super national parliament despite the many challenges in political development that currently faces it. Nevertheless, it is to be appreciated that the parliament have amassed great powers in the recent past decades in regard to inter institutional arrangement in EU as well as in legislative capacity despite its struggle in effective translation of political power towards the EU electorates. This means that despite the increased empowerment that it has received in the past, the parliament has to deploy effectively its powers in order to gain higher credibility and legitimacy in organization. Clegg and Hulten analyze possible mechanisms to reform the parliament for increased empowerment and propose the following as basic steps necessary. It should improve on legislative responsibilities, have a better scrutiny of the European executive, bridge the gaps existing in national politics as well as heighten the public profile. Moreover, reformation of electoral process through enhanced links between MEPs as well as the voters and ensuring that parliamentary processes are transparent, efficient as well as accountable will improve on the reformation processes desired (Clegg and Hulten, 2002, p. 1-6).

The parliament received a boost in its powers and responsibilities after the ratification of the Lisbon treaty drafted in 2007, through which the parliament aimed at overcoming the challenge of voting unanimously in the council over single acts as well as having the capacity to create such single groups as the Euro zone which were previously not at its discretion. Flexibility through enhanced cooperation has therefore been enhanced in decision making by the parliament through the treaty. Other areas covered in the treaty were enhanced cooperation on security, justices, freedom as well as strengthened economic integration between the states in the Euro zone. Community policies such as taxation, European citizenship as well as social policies were equally considered in the treaty, which therefore indicate the new dimensions of powers vested on the parliament after the treaty unlike the limited powers, which it was entitled previously (Kurpas et al, 2007, p. 13-14). The treaty of Lisbon comprehensively empowers the parliament on democratic principles, which brings together the working of European parliament, the national parliaments as well as the role of citizens in democratic European Union. Representative democracy and participatory democracy are well envisaged to enhance collaboration of all organs involved in effective democratic regimes in the union with the basic responsibility sticking to the European parliament (Mayoral, 2011, p. 1-5).

The coming into effect of the Lisbon treaty in2009 brought great revolution in institutional decision making within the European Union and enhanced increased cooperation by the member countries (Craig, 2008, p. 109-110; ‘Treaty of Lisbon’ nd, p. 1-5 ). European Council president position was created through the treaty to aid in coordination of eth 27 member countries towards cooperation and increased ease of decision making by the parliament. However, despite such increased prospects by the treaty towards effectiveness by the parliament, Archick and Mix (2010, p. 1-3) questions the treaty’s effect towards improving the parliaments cooperation with international community such as the United States. The treaty fails to structure effective mechanisms to effectuate the efforts by the parliament to collaborate the European union and the united states as would be deemed profitable.

In conclusion, therefore, the European parliament would be celebrated of having made great steps towards being empowered since the 1980s. This is because prior to the empowerment, the parliament had only a passive role in decision making within the union. The structure of the union previously held the judicial system and the ministers to having powers on legislation and as such, the parliament only participated partially. However, the empowerment of the parliament has revolutionized the working of the union with democracy taking a lead. This implies that the institutions of decision-making and the citizens are included in decision-making (Matarazzo, 2011, p. 11-15). The parliament was empowered to oversee democracy thrive through legislative powers, budgetary powers as well as supervisory role (Archick, 2013, p. 1-4). However, despite great empowerment by the Lisbon treaty in 2009, the parliament is argued to be still weak in its capacity to render the responsibilities accorded due to poor institutional arrangement. This is shown by ineffective legislative responsibilities, poor scrutiny of the European executive, gaps existing in national politics as well as low public profile among others (Maurer, 2003, p. 227-229).

Bibliography

Archick K., 2013. The European Parliament. Congressional Research Service Available at: < http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21998.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Archick K. and Mix D. E. 2010. The European Union’s Reform Process: The Lisbon Treaty. Congressional Research Service Available at: < http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/139287.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Clerck-Sachsse J. and Kaczyński P. M., 2009. The European Parliament – More powerful, less legitimate? An outlook for the 7th term. Available at: < http://www.ceps.eu/files/book/1846.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Clegg N. and Hulten M., 2002. Reforming the European parliament. Available at: < http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/130.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Cooper I, 2011. A “Virtual Third Chamber” for the European Union? National parliaments after the Treaty of Lisbon. Available at: < http://www.sv.uio.no/arena/english/research/publications/arena-publications/workingpapers/working-papers2011/wp-07-11.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Craig P., 2008. The Role of the European Parliament under the Lisbon Treaty. Available at: < http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-211-09429-7_5> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

‘European Union’, 2010. Welcome to the European Parliament. Available at: < http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/welcome_brochures/for_you/working_for_you_en.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Hix S. and Høyland B., 2013. Empowerment of the European Parliament. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 16:171–89

Kurpas S. et al, 2007. Available at: < http://www.ceps.eu/files/book/1554.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Maurer A., 2003. The Legislative Powers and Impact of the European Parliament. JCMS 41(2): 227–47

Matarazzo R., 2011. Democracy in the EU after the Lisbon treaty. Available at: < http://www.iai.it/pdf/Quaderni/iairp_02.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Mayoral J. 2011. Democratic improvements in the European Union under the Lisbon Treaty Institutional changes regarding democratic government in the EU. Available at: < http://www.eui.eu/Projects/EUDO-Institutions/Documents/EUDOreport922011.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

Norton P., 2007. National Parliaments and the European Union. Available at: < http://idpbarcelona.ub.edu/docs/recerca/dretue/docs/pdf/competencia_biblio_libros/6_norton.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

‘The EU Civil Society Contact Group’, 2009. What is the European parliament? Available at: < http://www.wereurope.eu/download/eu/factsheet_ep.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

‘Treaty of Lisbon’ nd. Treaty of Lisbon. Available at: < http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Treaty-of-Lisbon.pdf> (Accessed on 27 November 2013)

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Euro Debt Crisis, Causes and salient events leading to the present crisis

Euro debt crisis is a financial situation facing the euro zone comprising of 17 member states that use the euro currency where some member countries have worsening sovereign debts borrowed from financial institutions. These countries pose a credit risk if they default on their obligations to the detriment of the monetary union. The case is more severe for member countries like Greece, Italy, Ireland and Spain. Various causes and events have been pointed as leading to the present crisis. For example, according to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe- ALDE (2008, 11) structural factors that encouraged free market, deregulation of markets, self-regulating market virtues and increased use of new global financial instruments as a major cause. Extensive leverage on a large scale by market participants and enhanced systemic risk due to reduced transparency and contagion effects. The extensive sovereign borrowing, slow or stagnant economic growth rates by Greece and Italy and lowering of credit rating for Greece from A- to Triple B plus are some of the events that have worsened the crisis (VoA news, 2011).

How does the debt crisis in some countries within the Euro zone, such as Greece, Italy etc. impact on the international financial markets, including US, Euro zone and Asia?

As indicated on the figure on nytimes.com, the world has become a global village and is much interconnected. Severe debt crisis shocks in Greece and Italy are likely to result into continental contagion because financial institutions holding their sovereign debts have origins and investments in different continents (New York Times, 2011). Both US and Asia heavily trade with Europe and the euro debt crisis is likely to slow down their economic growth and possible down-grading of financial institutions that hold sovereign debt instruments. Due to possibility of high credit risk, interest rates are also likely to go up for both the private and public sector complicating the case further. High sovereign debts among Greece, Italy and Spain could force financial institutions to write off some debts or a bailout plan by able countries like Germany and France. Possible collapse of the euro would result into financial loss for among banks (Yahoo news, 2011).

How does the crisis impact the valuation of Euro as against other major currencies in the world?

Worsening debt crisis would mean slow economic growth among member states and high credit risk associated with holding the Euro resulting to low demand. This makes the euro to depreciate among the major currencies and players prefer to hold safer currencies like the US dollar and Swiss franc. For example, the euro lost 25% of its value against the U.S. dollar since November 2009 to June 2010 (Kolb, 2011, 389)

How, in your opinion, would the crisis be resolved?

First, the countries have to embrace better fiscal management to avoid unnecessary national expenditures among. Rationalization of fiscal income, better tax collection and cuts in civil servants salaries among member states to avoid higher heterogeneity should be embraced (Kolb, 2011, 390). Member states should also allow the central European authority to have some control over their sovereign budgets in order to create better fiscal and monetary policies. Currently, the monetary policy is joint while fiscal policy is not creating a mismatch. Allowing the European Central Bank (ECB) to have control over spending taxation would help the union to monitor and influence recovery among debt ridden countries (Yahoo news, 2011). High political goodwill and financial transparency among member states to support each other would help to reduce the global fear of a possible collapse. Initiating policies that boost economic growth in countries where its slow or stagnant would also ease the crisis. Finally, issuance of a single euro bond where member states co-guarantees their debt would lower borrowing as strong economies like Germany and France would reduce default risk.

Work Cited

ALDE. The international debt crisis: its causes and what to do about it. Liberals and Democrats workshop, February 27th , 2008. HYPERLINK “http://www.alde.eu/fileadmin/webdocs/key-docs/finance-book_EN.pdf” www.alde.eu/fileadmin/webdocs/key-docs/finance-book_EN.pdf, 2008

Keller, Greg, Pylas, Pan and Wiseman, Paul. Euro in danger, Europe races for debt solution. Yahoo News. HYPERLINK “http://www.news.yahoo.com/euro-danger-europe-races-debt-solution” www.news.yahoo.com/euro-danger-europe-races-debt-solution 29th Nov. 2011

Kolb, R.W. Sovereign debt: from safety to default. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2011

Marsh, Bill. It’s all connected: An overview of the Euro crisis. New York Times HYPERLINK “http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/10/23/sunday-review/an-overview-of-the-euro-crisis.html” www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/10/23/sunday-review/an-overview-of-the-euro-crisis.html 29th Nov. 2011

Melvin, Don. Eurozone ministers meet to build Euro rescue plan. Yahoo News HYPERLINK “http://www.news.yahoo.com/eurozone-ministers-meet-build-euro-rescue-plan” www.news.yahoo.com/eurozone-ministers-meet-build-euro-rescue-plan. 29th Nov. 2011

VoA News. Key dates, events in European debt crisis. VoA News. HYPERLINK “http://www.voanews.com/english/news/europe/keydates-events-in-european-debt-crisis.html ” www.voanews.com/english/news/europe/keydates-events-in-european-debt-crisis.html 29th Nov. 2011

European Union (EU) New Economic Policy-Annotated Bibliography

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European Union (EU) New Economic Policy-Annotated Bibliography

Recently, European commission has made a lot of reforms on its economic policies, largely informed by the recent economic and financial crisis affecting member states. Thus, my research will focus on analyzing in details the new economic reforms made by EU recently. This paper presents bibliography details of the sources that I will use for my research.

Annotated Bibliography

Ali El-Agraa, A., (2011), The European Union: Economics and Policies, New York (NY):

Cambridge University Press

This book covers all major policy areas of EU, including economic integration among EU members. This source has credible information about recent economic policies made by European Commission.

Bayne N., & Woolcock, S., (2011), The New Economic Diplomacy: Decision-Making and

Negotiation in International Economic Relations, London: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

This book explains how states and regions, including European Union, conduct their internal and external economic relations in the 21st century. Chapter 9 has useful information regarding the recent changes in economic policies by EU.

Blizkovsky , P. (2011), The New Economic Governance of the European Union: What is it and

who does what?, Policy Brief Series, 2(4), Retrieved 2 April 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.spp.nus.edu.sg/docs/policy-briefs/the-briefing-room/2011/tbrPB11-04.pdf” http://www.spp.nus.edu.sg/docs/policy-briefs/the-briefing-room/2011/tbrPB11-04.pdf

This source discusses economic governance of European Commission and economic policy measures made recently. It has vital information related to the new economic policies made by EU.

Donici, G., Ionel; S. & Încalţărău, C., (2010), European Union – World Economic Power, CES

Working Papers, 2 (1), pp. 27 – 41

This journal describes the shape of economic policies of EU by 2010. It has vital formation about the recent changes in EU economic policies driven by financial crisis

European Commission, (2011), An agenda for growth – 23/11/2011, Retrieved 2 April 2012

from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/news/economy/111123_en.htm” http://ec.europa.eu/news/economy/111123_en.htm

This site presents an overview of the details of a meeting held by European Commission officials on 23 November, 2012. It provides information about budgetary and economic recommendations which were set as priorities to be met in the future, during that meeting. Thus, this site has useful information about the new economic policy of EU.

European Commission, (2011), Proposal for a regulation of the European parliament and of the

council on the strengthening of economic and budgetary surveillance of Member States experiencing or threatened with serious difficulties with respect to their financial Stability in the euro area, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/regulation_2_en.pdf” http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/regulation_2_en.pdf

This site presents a proposal by European Commission to enhance surveillance of EU nations which are threatened by financial instability or which are given financial support. It is thus a credible source for my research.

European Commission, (2011), Proposal for a regulation of the European parliament and of the

council on common provisions for monitoring and assessing draft budgetary plans and ensuring the correction of excessive deficit of the Member States in the euro area, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/regulation_1_en.pdf” http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/regulation_1_en.pdf

This site presents a proposal made recently be European Commission requiring Euro zone nations to read their draft budgets at the same time. Thus, it is a vital source for my research.

European Commission, (2012), Annual Growth Survey 2012, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from,

HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/annex_1_en.pdf” http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/documents/pdf/annex_1_en.pdf

This site presents the results of the 2011 survey conduced by the European Commission on the rate of economic and employment growth. In this source, European Commission offers suggestions to member countries of EU on how to put public finances in order and to make structural reforms, thereby boost economic and employment growth. Therefore, this source has relevant information about the new economic policy of EU.

European Commission, (2012), A new EU economic governance – a comprehensive Commission

package of proposals, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/articles/eu_economic_situation/2010-09-eu_economic_governance_proposals_en.htm” http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/articles/eu_economic_situation/2010-09-eu_economic_governance_proposals_en.htm

This site provides the new proposals by European commission to EU members, which are build on the measures taken during the recent financial crisis. These proposals are meant to improve economic governance and help to control economic debt in the future. Therefore, this source is also useful for the purpose of my research.

European Commission, (2012), Consultation on Proposed EU Platform for External

Cooperation and Development, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/consultation/index_en.htm” http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/consultation/index_en.htm

This site describe a recent step by European Commission to launch public consultation on how the Euro zone can be able to collectively offer financial assistance to member countries with debt problems.

European Commission, (2012), on the feasibility of introducing Stability Bonds, Retrieved 2

April 2012 from, HYPERLINK “http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010 2014/president/news/documents/pdf/green_en.pdf” http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010 2014/president/news/documents/pdf/green_en.pdf

This paper presents various options offered by European commission for assisting member countries with debt problems. It is a credible and reliable source for my research.

Jackson, B. P., (2011), The European Union Goes East, Policy Review, 166, p. 53

This journal reviews the recent policies made by European Union, especially those affecting Eastern Europe. This source effectively covers the recent economic policies made by European Commission and the impact of these policies in Eastern Europe.

Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2011), Economic Policy Reforms

2011: Going for Growth, New York (NY): OECD Publishing

This book presents economic policy reforms made by various countries and regions in the world, which are influenced by the recent economic and financial crisis. Chapter 6 of the books offers an overview of the recent economic reforms made by EU.

Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2011), Economic Survey of the European Union 2012, Retrieved 2 April 2012 from, http://www.oecd.org/document/56/0,3746,en_2649_34569_49931256_1_1_1_1,00.html

This site offers an overview of economic survey of European Union conducted by Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development department. It reviews the recent economic reforms made by European Commission and offers recommendations for the future.

Staab, A., (2011), The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact, New

Delhi: Indiana University Press, 2011

This book provides details about EU, including the structure of economic policy of EU. Chapter 15 of this book has useful information regarding the recent economic reforms made by European Commission.

African Masks at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

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African Masks at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Introduction

African masks are considered to be amongst fine creations of art work. Masking ceremonies in Africa have significant traditional and cultural importance. During celebrations such as crop harvesting, initiations, war preparation, trouble and peace times, the African mask were worn by initiated dancers. They were worn covering the head to act as disguise. When an African wears masks, he or she ceases to exist and they embody the spirit that is symbolized by the mask. Sometimes it may represent an animal spirit while other times it may represent the ancestry of the wearer. The masks from different communities serve their own unique purposes in the diversity of African culture.

The head dress mask

HYPERLINK “http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/arts_of_africa_oceania_and_the_americas/headdress/objectview_enlarge.aspx?page=6&sort=6&sortdir=asc&keyword=Masks&fp=6&dd1=5&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=5&OID=50003646&vT=1&hi=0&ov=0” INCLUDEPICTURE “http://www.metmuseum.org/Imageshare/ao/regular/VS1978_412_607.jpg” * MERGEFORMATINET

The head dress was made in the year 1978. It measures 41 centimeter in length 14 centimeters in width and 19.8 centimeters of breadth. Its medium is leather, wood, pigment cane, kaolin and vegetable fiber. It was black in color which is associated with the deceased in their spirit world. It was also associated with reunion with the spirit. The spirits associated with this mask were the female ancestors and the goddesses. This mask is worn on the head of a female elder. It was worn during dance initiation and funeral ceremonies. During these initiation ceremonies the young women are circumcised as rite of passage to adulthood. The head dress depicts a beautiful woman with elegant coiffures. The head dress is made by many different peoples who live in villages scattered along Cameroon and the cross river. The head dress mask features celebrates and displays the society ideals for female virtue and beauty through its features. First it had the elaborately hair style in a Mohawk which displays the value for cosmetic skills and sexuality. The second feature was the broad neck which displayed the society value full bodied and good health as the female beautyHYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+inauthor:%22Ladislas+Segy%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=10” (Segy 1997).

The smooth textured forehead was to display nobility and intelligence. These were also displayed by the broad features of the fore head. The lowered eyes were meant to display contemplativeness and restraint. The mask also had well shaped ears, a small nose and a small mouth. The small mouth means that the woman was not a gossip woman who was very much disliked in this community. She was feared because she could potentially break families and the community in general with a big loud mouth. Another feature of the mask was composed expression brought about by the balance of the lines and shape. The composed expression was displayed the inner serenity of the woman. The smooth texture displayed a smooth skin which was meant to show youthfulness which was very valued amongst women. This was the ideal beauty of a woman. The village heads in this community married many women who had to posses these features. All these features in the mask were exaggerated.

It had a birds figure of a Mohawk perched on the top which formed the area which most stood out on this mask. The birds figure has no distinctive meaning. Thus it could mean love, fertility, clairvoyance, danger, power, prudence, discipline and laughter. The mask’s shining blackness was also used to connote the importance of moral purity and the essence of female beauty (Finley 2006). The dance ceremony was used to honor creative and powerful women elders, the goddesses, female ancestors who all were known in an affectionate term as the mothers. During this dance sacrifices were offered to appease these goddesses and female ancestors so as to give the land a lot of food and rain. When the rain did not come for a long time the people believed the goddesses were angry and they would appease them through the dance. The woman was highly regarded and respected in this society. They believed that the woman was the giver of life and thus great honor was bestowed to the goddesses and the female ancestors. The woman in this society was supposed to posses all attributes of beauty so as to be given the honor of a female elder. They were supposed to have stringent qualities of cosmetics and sexuality. They were also supposed to display good health which was a big body and not skinny bodies. The outward appearance was to be coupled with the inward appearance of good virtue. For example such a woman was not supposed to be a rumor monger.

Kanaga mask

HYPERLINK “http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/arts_of_africa_oceania_and_the_americas/mask_kanaga/objectview_enlarge.aspx?page=1&sort=6&sortdir=asc&keyword=Masks&fp=1&dd1=5&dd2=0&vw=1&collID=5&OID=50007728&vT=1&hi=0&ov=0”

The Kananga mask was made in 1987. It is made of wood, fiber, hide and pigment. It measure 53.6 centimeters in height, 97.2 centimeters width and 15.9 centimeters breadth.

The Kananga mask was characterized by a superstructure of wood which was in the form of a double barred cross which had short vertical elements projecting from the tips of each of the horizontal bars. The vertical shaft and its horizontal bars are painted white. White color in the African culture is the color of death and it is used to associate the wearer with the ancestral spirits. The white color was associated with purity as they were meant to be worn at a time when one had first sough forgiveness from the spirits (White 2007). Only selected member who had the ability of being pure could be allowed to wear them. These were members from a specific clan which produced the leaders of the society. Some parts of the shafts and the horizontal bars are painted black which is the color of the earth in this culture. The surface texture was rough all throughout the body of the mask. The mask had indigo fibers representing feathers all around the oval head. They were to symbolize a bird. This is because the Kananga mask is supposed to represent a bird with the feathers surrounding the white wings and the black forehead. This is however the first knowledge of the uninitiated. There is a deeper meaning of the Kananga mask which pertains to their god and the crossbars are his arms and legs. It also represents the arrangement of the universe whereby the upper crossbar represents the sky while the lower one represents the universe. The universe is supposedly the dwelling of their god who lives in the sky but comes down on earth when they offered their sacrifices. It most standing out area is the brown feathers made of fiber. The purpose of the art was to show a bird head and thus the feature of the feathers had to stand out since the mask could after all represent a head of any animal if the feathers were not as conspicuous. Thus since the mask was purposefully a bird head there had to be something distinct to show that it was indeed a bird head. The rest of the features could represent another animal since they are common features in any animal and when transferring them to art they can take the same shapes. For example the oval head could suggest the head of any animal. The Kananga mask is one of the most popular masks in the region of Sanga. The Kananga mask just like the other dogon masks is worn at the ritual ceremonies which are called dama. The goal of the dama ceremonies is to transport the souls of all the dead members of the family away from the village. The other goal was to enhance the prestige of the deceased of the dead and all the descendants by the masked performances and also the generous displaying of hospitality. It was during the dama dancing ceremonies that the masks were won by the dancers. The back of the head of the dancer is covered with a hood of plaited fiber fringe at the edge on the bottom when the mask is worn. The dancer also dons a vest which is made of black stripped woven cloth and also red broad stripped cloth whose embroidery is cowrie shells. There should be dangling strand of glass and plastic beans from its edges. The dancer also puts on a trouser, dyed indigo and made of strip woven cotton cloth over which a long skirt is tied. The skirt is made of curly loosely strung and black dyed sansevera fibers. There is a belief among the Dogons that the dama dancing crates a bridge between the people and the supernatural world. It was during the mask ceremony when the dancer went into a deep trance, and during this state of mind, they were would communicate with the ancestors. A wise man sometimes accompanied the wearer of the mask to the dance. The dancer played an important role of bringing forth the message of wisdom to the people from the ancestors.

The dogon hold memorial ceremonies after every five years to accompany the dead into the realm of the ancestors. During the dama celebration ceremonies, the Youdiou villagers usually dance circling around the stilt dancers. Through these rituals they believe that the ancestors’ benevolent force is transmitted to them (Herman, Neerman 2010). During this dance one of the costumes is the Kananga mask. Their self defense descends from social solidarity which is based on combination of complex religious and philosophic dogmas. The ritual masks and corpses are kept in caves and are used for the ceremonies.

The African not regarded as artists in their own culture.

The African who made the masks were not regarded as artist in their own culture. First and foremost art is foreign to their culture and they not know what art means. Although the African culture are divers there are common things displayed by such pieces art and since they are already familiar with them they don’t attribute a lot of significance to them as the westerner who know little of the African culture. The meanings they associate with the mask are not in the artistic thinking but in the societal values and beliefs. The symbolisms of the mask were not viewed in the art dimension but in the purpose they serve (Rupert 2005). Thus if the mask shows famine beauty the ones who created them are not artist but they just did the mask in honor of the feminine beauty. The symbolism of the works of art is not highly regarded in the African setting. Thus simply Africans don’t consider art very important issue since in their culture it is foreign.

References

Finley C. (2006) The symbolism of African masks. Oxford . Oxford publishers.

HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+inauthor:%22Herman+Burssens%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=3″Herman. B, HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+inauthor:%22Marnix+Neerman%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=3” Neerman .M. (2010) African Faces: A Homage to the African Mask. United

Kingdom. Lanoo Books.

HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+inauthor:%22Janet+E.+Rupert%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=9” Rupert. J. (2005) The African mask united states. Universe publishers

HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=+inauthor:%22Ladislas+Segy%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=10” Segy. L. (1976) Masks of Black Africa. Newyork. Courier Dover Publications

White. L. (2007). The art of African masks: exploring cultural trasitons. United States. Cenange

Learning.

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United States History

Topic 1

After his election, Kennedy was a young and charming president who brought new hope to Americans. In his speech he said, “Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country” (Berkin, Miller, & Cherry 850). Kennedy gave hope to Americans promising to bring racism to an end, bring peace to the world and defeat poverty by launching a New Frontier Program.

Kennedy unlike other presidents who came before him had better luck in turning the economy of the United States around. Kennedy wanted to save Americans from the bad policies made by his predecessors that made the country to suffer the great depression. As discussed by Berkin et al, he aimed to create a society where poverty would be eliminated (850). Kennedy worked closely with economic advisors in planning and shaping the national economy through federal spending and tax policies.

President Kennedy gave consent on the urban renewal bill. This facilitated the revitalization of run-down areas of the cities to give them a new look. The federal government was charged with the responsibility of providing funds for the construction of modern housing, public facilities and office buildings.

Monetary as well as fiscal policies including cuts in taxes were used in the stimulation of the economy. Kennedy managed to push for reduction of taxes in the Congress during the first year, but failed to do so the following year. Government spending was used in order to stimulate the economy (Berkin et al 850).

Topic 2

From 1962-1965, Cesar Chavez and a group of other organizers traveled the valleys of California talking to people and urging them to join their organization which later came to be known as the National Farm workers Association (NFWA). They termed their organization as a labor union due to the bad memories people had about failed strikes and unfulfilled promises (Berkin et al 865).

On September 8, 1965, following the leadership of Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, the organization went on strike. They wanted people to view the strike as a battle for human rights and dignity. They made this their cause and tried reaching out to church members as well as student activists for support. Chavez urged the members of the labor union to employ non-violent tactics as a way to uphold their morals. This organization attracted the interest of the public due their non-violent tactics.

Most of the members focused on grape boycott. Since most of the union members were workers in the grape farms, they persuaded others not to buy grapes so that they could pressure Delano growers to meet their demands. With the signing of an agreement with the growers, the labor union felt that they had won part of the battle (Berkin et al 865). This brought to an end the era of an abusive system where farmers were protected from harsh chemicals use in Agriculture. In addition, wages for the farmers were increased as well as building of toilets and provision of a medical cover.

Cesar Chavez died in 1993 which din not only mark the end to his era, but the beginning of another. Arturo Rodriguez his successor took over the union taking it back to where it started so as to advocate for the rights of farmers working in mushroom and strawberry farms. The union lived on even after the death of its founders employing the same non-violent tactics (Berkin et al 866).

Work Cited

Berkin, Carol., Miller, Christopher., & Cherry, Robert. Making American: A History

of the United States since 1865, Volume II. Florence: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

African Politics

[Student’s Name]

[Institution Affiliation]

Introduction

African societies today have two levels of political structures: the indigenous organization, which pertains to local groups, and the national government of the independent nation-states (Barrientos & Hulme, 2010). The relationship between the two levels is complex and has led to serious incompatibilities and conflicts.

It has become usual to classify the multitude of indigenous forms of African government into three main categories, conventionally known as bands, tribes, and kingdoms. Bands are relatively few and are limited to the societies with economies based on hunting and gathering, especially those of the Bushmen of the Kalahari and the foragers of the central African forests. Their economies require a low density of population and, therefore, its wide distribution over large areas, which inhibits permanent or large settlements. These bands are not found in total isolation but are interspersed with culturally different groups with distinct and complementary economies (Barrientos & Hulme, 2010). Essentially, the bands are large kinship groups under the authority of family elders and shamanic ritual leaders.

Tribes, a word less often used today than it was formerly because it is held to imply primitiveness, form the numerically largest political category. Tribes are larger and more settled than bands, but they still lack any overall form of centralized political authority. They have no kings and, in the past, usually had no formally appointed chiefs, although there have always been ritual leaders with some degree of political authority (Büscher, 2010). Most of these societies are based upon a structure of clans, which are segmented into subclans and lineages, often with three or four levels of segmentation. A clan or lineage is the basic unit of such a tribal organization, in which the tribe resembles a series of small, equal, and quasi-autonomous groups. The traditional sanctions for social order are ritual, feud, and warfare.

In the third type of indigenous political structure that of the kingdom or state political authority is centered on the office of a king (sometimes a queen), who is chosen from a royal clan and given sacred attributes by his or her subjects. Kingdoms range in population from a few thousand people to several million, and their rulers vary from being little more than ritual figureheads (as among the Shilluk of the southern Sudan, the prototype of James G. Frazer’s “divine” king) to military despots with powers of life and death (Büscher, 2010). These kingdoms may have arisen by conquest (as those of the Zulu or Swazi of southern Africa) or by combining into a federation of culturally related states (as those of the Asante or Ghana). The ruler may be regarded as a senior kinsman to his subjects, as a member of a socially senior royal clan, or as a member of an ethnically distinct autocracy (as in the former Rwanda and Burundi kingdoms).

All of these different kinds of political units exist today, although the traditional powers of kings were invariably limited and weakened during colonial rule (Büscher, 2010). In some colonial systems, in particular that of the British, the indigenous rulers were permitted to reign without the power of inflicting death or waging war, under the policy of “indirect rule”; in other systems, especially in the French colonies, it was more usual for indigenous rulers to become little more than figureheads or even to be abolished. Above the level of indigenous forms of polity is that of the modern nation-state (Eifert, Miguel & Posner, 2010). There are today almost sixty such nations in Africa, their boundaries remaining those established by the colonial powers that divided Africa at the end of the nineteenth century, with scant regard for the interests of the Africans themselves. It is little wonder that there have been perennial boundary disputes, which have almost all been settled by the Organization of African Unity (Neocosmos, 2010).

Conclusion

The leaders of these new states have been faced with the problem trying to construct and retain notions of national identity, and to this aim have they tended to reduce still further the powers of traditional rulers and of the local councils and courts, which are based on association or descent. The indigenous local political units may retain the loyalties of their members, but this loyalty has typically been condemned as “tribalism” and (usually mistakenly) considered to be antithetical to “nationalism.” The indigenous ruling elites have been weakened and have been replaced by modern elites, whose memberships are based on wealth and commerce rather than on traditional affiliations. The clashes between the two principles of organization—class and descent—have led to gross conflicts of interest and often to armed struggles within military and one-party governments, which have suppressed protestations and expressions of democratic dissent as “tribalism.”

References

Barrientos, A., & Hulme, D. (2010). Social Protection For The Poor And Poorest: Concepts, Policies And Politics (Palgrave Studies In Development) Author: Arm.

Büscher, B. (2010). Anti‐politics as political strategy: Neoliberalism and transfrontier conservation in southern Africa. Development and Change, 41(1), 29-51.

Eifert, B., Miguel, E., & Posner, D. N. (2010). Political competition and ethnic identification in Africa. American Journal of Political Science, 54(2), 494-510.

Neocosmos, M. (2010). From’foreign natives’ to’native foreigners’: Explaining xenophobia in post-apartheid South Africa: Citizenship and nationalism, identity and politics. African Books Collective.

Student Name

ARTH 334 6210

June 19, 2014

Argo

After militants seize control of the U.S. embassy in Tehran during the Iranian Revolution, CIA agent Tony Mendez played by Ben Affleck is sent in to rescue a group of American diplomats that have sought refuge at the home of the Canadian ambassador. In order to create tension throughout the film Ben Affleck who also directs the movie puts together the film meticulously. Inserting real news footage from the time period as seen throughout the film on 1970 style televisions, this adds a sense of danger to every stage of the CIA exfiltration operation. In the early part of the film the audience see hordes of angry Iranian revolutionaries, men hanging from cranes and women with automatic rifles. Moving forward the same horde of revolutionaries is seen storming the American embassy creating a nail-biting experience throughout the entire film.

The cast is crafted smartly to add more tension to film. As seen by the character Sahar played by actress Shiela Vand, she is a housekeeper at the Canadian embassy. She herself is Iranian and there is no escape for her. Placed in a difficult situation she is caught between telling the Iranian soldiers that the diplomats are being held at the Canadian compound or assist in hiding them and risking her own life.

Throughout the film one will noticed that the lighting was pretty consistent across different shooting locations. This element was very creative due to the fact that the production was shot in Turkey and some in southern California. It helps add to the realism of the film especially in scenes such as the open-air market in downtown Tehran as the Americans posing as a film crew walk-about with the locals. As of the note the low light setting contributes to the graininess of film adding more realism and dramatic effect throughout the film.

Editing within the film was done well as noted in the airplane scenes of the landing and takeoff at the Tehran International Airport. As the plane is landing the white cap mountains surrounding the city of Tehran are captured given the location a cold and unwelcoming feel.

Additionally the wide angel shot taken in the Istanbul mosque creates the feel of a Mediterranean atmosphere.

Audio realism was critical in the film Argo as it definitely added to the tension and pressure that the characters were under from the start of the film to the end. In particular within the scenes in Tehran there always seem to be a very aggressive-style mix of music or sound with rawness and edginess. This allowed for the audience and the characters to never forget that they were in a foreign country in hiding. Ben Affleck made good use of the offstage sounds such as gunshots due to the revolution going on at the time and the calls-to-prayer in Farsi.

Argo. Dir. Ben Affleck. Perf. Ben Affleck, Bryan Cranston, John Goodman, Chris Messina. Warner Bros, 2012. Film.

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Europe in 1989 and beyond

Introduction

As a result of societal dynamism and constantly emerging challenges; every society has since time immemorial undergone several changes in their political, economical and the entire social organization. This is due to the ever increasing demand for innovations, modification of ideas and adjustment of policies in the society to meet the emerging challenges and befit societal requirements; thus the focus on the intellectual and cultural trends in Europe in the last half of the twentieth century.

Discussion

The transformational trends in the political arena have seen the European society substantially embrace democracy in the period 1989 and beyond. This has given people the freedom to participate in the political activities; a factor considered very important in societal governing since their voices are heard and responded to.. The governments ensure that there is accountability and transparency in their work (Grinsven 13). On the intellectual part, Europe ensures that the political arena makes the use of the learned people who are also experienced when formulating policies to govern the people. The inclusion of the intelligent people in politics in Europe over this period has enabled governments to be proactive and to come up with policies that best fit political expectations of their citizens. These intelligent include the political analysts and experts who are consulted from time to time to guide in matters relating to government.

Social life has also undergone change. Initially there were many cultures with a number of them feeling more superior comparatively; thereby posing threats to social order. Change has seen the emergence of universal culture in Europe which is accommodative of all cultures. Europe has embraced a homogeneous culture which provides similar values for all which is important in reducing chances of conflicts. This culture is well accommodated in the international European political field (Grinsven 13). Formal education has been producing an intellectual culture that shuns irrational beliefs and embrace cultural diversity. The learned people in the society have helped the larger society in realizing that matters of culture is a creation of man and they should not cause havoc and social disorder.

Europe has also experienced immeasurable advancements in the economic field. This has seen shift from agricultural activities to the dominant service industries. The dominant culture where human labor was prevalent is now changing in the economic field with the introduction of technology. The intellectual trend has been useful in the invention of these technologies. These experts have been very useful in predicting the economic trends and help the government in planning for its expenditures and international trade.

Conclusion

Societal change is inevitable owing to the fact that social phenomena can be quite challenging. For the society to move to the next level they need to acquire new ways of solving the social phenomena. The work of the intellectuals at this point is indisputable as they act as guides for the society. Finally, cultural issues need to be addressed with a universal culture being preferred since it reduces chances of conflicts and steers the society ahead.

Work Cited

Van Grinsven: The European Council under Construction. Netherlands Institution for

International Relations, p 13 2003

Euthanasia also known referred to as compassionate killing

Euthanasia, also known referred to as compassionate killing, is an issue that has generated plenty of debate in both medical and academic circles. Everyone seems to have an opinion on the matter, even when none of those taking part in the argument have experienced the euthanasia. While some believe that the euthanasia is a good medical practice, others hold the notion that it is not justifiable and should, therefore, be done away with (Barbra 73). In my perception, euthanasia is not justifiable, and for that reason is a problem to society. Not only is it wrong to kill a human being, taking the life of a helpless human being is an act that is beyond the definition of murder. To get more insight on the issue, I conducted two interviews, one with a doctor and the other with a philosophy professor to obtain clarification on the matter.

Accordingly, this paper presents two dialogues illustrating my complaint, which is the practice of euthanasia, its background, and the reason for this complaint. The dialogue also touches on some of the counter arguments for my complaint, as well as, the solution for the problem of euthanasia.

Dialogue with Doctor

Interviewer: In your definition of the act, What is euthanasia?

Doctor: Euthanasia is the process of inflicting death for mercy purposes (Barbra 74)

Interviewer: Please expound on that

Doctor: It is whereby medical practitioners, as well as, other qualified professionals inflict

death as a solution for patients who are suffering from terminal illnesses

Interviewer: For how long has euthanasia been practiced in the field?

Doctor: Theoretically, euthanasia has been conducted for many years dating back to the 16th century. However, practically, euthanasia was first practiced legally in early 18th century to date

Interviewer: Are you aware of the controversy surrounding the subject of euthanasia? Or rather are you aware of the problem of euthanasia?

Doctor: Yes I am. Euthanasia is a problem because it is believed to be wrongful killing of human life. Most people believe that it is equitable to murder and is not justifiable

Interviewer: I believe so too. I believe that euthanasia is murder and it should not be practiced at all costs. In fact, it should be made illegal

Doctor: I disagree with you on that. making it illegal would mean watching patients suffer to their last breadth. Euthanasia is painless and it relieves pain that would otherwise not be manageable

Interviewer: How is euthanasia conducted? And is there a special technique that has been

accepted by all medical practitioners for conducting euthanasia?

Doctor : As a matter of fact, yes there is. The only technique of euthanasia that has been

accepted for practice is the injection of an overdose of painkillers to patients (Brassington 415). However, other medical practitioners would prefer lethal injection

Interviewer: What is the difference between lethal injection and an overdose injection

Doctor: Lethal injections involve the use of lethal substances such as poison, whereas an

overdose injection is solely dependent on the use of prescription drugs

Interviewer: In your own personal opinion, do you think that the practice of euthanasia is

justified?

Doctor: Yes I do

Interviewer: Why so?

Doctor: Because of the nature of the practice and the need for it

Interviewer: Explain please

Doctor: Well, Euthanasia is only performed on patients who have been diagnosed with

terminal diseases (Parker 30). These are diseases that do not have a cure, meaning that the end result for the patient is death

Interviewer: Meaning that it is justifiable because the patient will die in the end?

Doctor: No. Meaning that it reduces the pain experienced from an incurable disease. It is a

painless procedure, whose main aim is to reduce pain and suffering for the patient

Interviewer: Who decides whether the patient should be subjected to Euthanasia?

Doctor: The patient, his family, as well as, the patients doctor. All three people play a role

in deciding this

Interviewer: Would a doctor carry out euthanasia without the consent of the patient?

Doctor: No. conducting euthanasia without the patients consent is a criminal activity that

is surmountable to murder (Lillehammer 550)

Interviewer: So in your own point of view euthanasia is legal and should be an accepted

practice in the medical field

Doctor: Yes it should, as it helps reduce suffering for terminally ill patients. Illegalizing

euthanasia will not only be unjustified, it will also be unfair for these patients.

Interviewer: Thank you Doctor for your assistance

Doctor: You are welcome

Dialogue with University Philosophy Professor

Student: I think euthanasia is immoral and should not be an accepted practice. Do you

agree with me?

Professor: No. Euthanasia is both legally and ethically justified meaning that it is a moral act

Student: What is your understanding of moral actions? Because in my perception anything

that takes away human life, is immoral. We all desire to live, and live long for that matter, so taking another human being’s life is immoral (Barbra 76)

Professor: In my opinion, moral actions are actions that bring the most pleasure to

individuals and if the infliction of death will bring pleasure to terminally ill patients, then euthanasia should be a legalized medical practice

Student: I do agree with your ideologies concerning moral actions, but I do not agree that

the infliction of death is the most acceptable course of action for these patients. Human rights demands that each individual have the right to life, and taking away this life goes against these rights

Professor: Human rights also supports reducing suffering of any kind for human beings. As a

matter of fact, human rights is all about condensing and abolishing human suffering. Euthanasia provides this solution

Student: The ethical values associated with euthanasia make this issue problematic and

immoral. Consider the case where there is a misdiagnosis, or maybe there is a chance of survival (Parker 29). Who are we to decide whether or not an individual will live or die

Professor: We shall all die eventually, death is inevitable. Furthermore, Euthanasia cannot be

conducted without the consent of the patient or his family. Therefore, the choice is the patient’s. he chooses whether to live or die. He has a right over his own life. And to deny him this right goes against the demands of human rights

Student: When deciding whether to undergo euthanasia, patient’s are physically and

emotionally unstable and the decisions made at this time may be irrational and based on the need to reduce the pain experienced. Allowing euthanasia to be practiced in our hospitals will only lead to a state known as the “Slippery Slope” where doctors will take advantage of its legalization, and decide to play God (Lillehammer 547). There is a possibility that medical practitioners will also choose to be indolent in their duties and responsibilities and instead of treating these patients, they will opt to perform euthanasia.

Professor: I agree with that and believe that euthanasia should be conducted in a cautious

manner and should be carried out after a severe scrutiny of the patients situation. This is the only way that euthanasia can be effectively and efficiently carried out, without going against its moral demands.

Student: The only viable solution to this problem is illegalizing euthanasia. By doing this,

the possibility of patients dying as a result of misdiagnosis will be reduced. Doctors and other supporters of the act should accept that death is inevitable and for that reason, should allow nature to take its course

Work Cited

Barbara MacKinnon. Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Publishing Company, 2008. Print.

Brassington, Iain. Five Words for Assisted Dying. Law and Philosophy 27.5 (2008): 415-444.

Print.

Lillehammer, Hallvard. Voluntary Euthanasia and the Logical Slippery Slope Argument. The

Cambridge Law Journal 61.3 (2002): 545-550. Print.

Parker, Malcolm. Moral Intuition, Good Deaths and Ordinary Medical Practitioners. Journal of

Medical Ethics 16.1(1990): 28-34. Print.

“Writing Dialogue”. 6 November 2007. Web. 19 October 2011. << http://creative-writing-

course.thecraftywriter.com/writing-dialogue/all-comments/#comments>>

History

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Question 1: European Civilization Compared to India and China

There was a significant trajectory, and rise of European civilization. The latter can be compared to the civilizations, which occurred in India and China. In Europe, after the tenth century, people benefited from territorial expansion, population growth and prosperity. People became aware of the importance of specialization, and in turn, commerce and trade occurred in the towns and rural areas. Example of towns, which prospered due to commerce and trade, were Italian cities such as Venice. Furthermore as the fourteenth century began, many people lost their lives due to various calamities. The latter included; epidemics. The Black Death, wars, as well as famines. The result was that the population levels declined, and people had to deal with rising wages and falling rents (Duiker& Spielvogel, 2011).

On the other hand, in China, many people existed as compared to Europe, in a phase known as the Common Era. As compared to Europe, political stability existed in China and even its economy improved drastically. Europe was in dire need of Chinese products, such as ceramics and tea, which in turn, contributed to it being a stable and competitive market. In India, a caste system existed, which had an impact on its population growth and the economy (Duiker& Spielvogel, 2011). Thus, most parts of India were not as developed as compared to china and Europe. On the other hand, in India, there was extreme advancement in technology and commerce. However, it did not assist in making India have prosperous industries.

There were also differences that existed between the Arab civilization and civilization, which existed in Europe. The latter were mostly Christians, while the former were Muslims, and they had different lifestyles. In the Arab civilizations, the men were the ones who dictated how society ought to be. Also, in European society this existed, but to a limited extent as witnessed. For example, the Puritans did not give any rights to their women and they were expected to be passive in societal matters (McNeill & McNeill, 2003). In a nutshell, the European civilization is described as being more advanced as compared to the Arab one. Moreover, most Europeans migrated to other regions and they influenced other civilization such as the Americas.

Question 2: The Impact of Black Death

The Black Death is a notable period, which took place in history, as many people died due to the spread of deadly diseases. Also, it had a significant impact on the Byzantium as well as in Medieval Europe. In turn, many societies in Western Europe were affected as they became vulnerable to many other problems. It is believed that the Black Death originated in Asia before it spread to other parts. Rats and fleas were the ones that transmitted the disease and then spread to human beings. There was a tremendous strain, especially to the population of mediaeval Europe. Furthermore, people began to doubt traditional values, and others even began to challenge and change their old institutions. Even the Byzantines were affected, including the son to the king, and he came up with ways to protect his people from the plague. The people who were affected by the Black Death had to change their lifestyles. For example, those who usually took a bath many times, had to reduce, and only the rich had the privilege of bathing regularly. The calamities, which took place in Byzantium and medieval Europe, lead to many areas becoming developed (Bennett & Hollister 2006).

References

Duiker, William. & Spielvogel, Jackson. (2011). The Essential World History, 6th Ed. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

McNeill, J. & McNeill, William. (2003). The Human Web: A Bird’s Eye View of World History 1st Ed. New York and London: W.W. Norton and Company.

Bennett, M. & Hollister, C. (2006). Medieval Europe: A Short History .New York: McGraw-Hill.