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Affordable Care Act

Introduction

Healthcare has always been considered as one of the fundamental pillars of any country. It is well acknowledged that the health of a people is a fundamental determinant of the health of the economy especially considering that only healthy individuals have the capacity to generate wealth. In the recent times, the United States government has made numerous legislations that have changed the healthcare sector, the most fundamental of which is the Affordable Care Act. Popularly known as “Obamacare”, the Affordable Care Act is considered the most sweeping and reformative legislation since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. It is aimed at giving all Americans the capacity to obtain medical coverage at an affordable rate. While there may be differing opinions as to the utility of the Affordable Care Act, the law comes as extremely beneficial to the country.

First, the legislation would allow for increased health insurance coverage in the country. Research shows that currently, there are about 32 million Americans who are yet to be under a health insurance cover (Hill, (2011). This piece of legislation will allow for these people to be covered at least by 2014 when the bill comes fully into force. This includes the 3.1 million Americans aged between 19 and 25, who are under their parents’ plans since they cannot afford to pay for their own plans (Tate, 2012). In addition, insurance companies will no longer have the capacity to deny individuals who have pre-existing conditions insurance coverage or even drop plan members when they become sick (Hill, (2011). For many years, applicants for health insurance in the Family or Individual market were required to complete an application and pass the approval of the underwriting guidelines. This was extremely frustrating to individuals who had their applications declined or even their premiums increased simply because of the preexisting health conditions (Tate, 2012). In essence, the Affordable Care Act comes as a relief to these people, as well as for individuals who are unable to afford their health insurance as they will be added to the Medicaid’s program in the states with the federal government paying the states for the addition (Tate, 2012).

On the same note, the bill comes as extremely beneficial to the low-middle income families and individuals. Scholars note that Medicaid program will be expanded so as to cover individuals in the low income brackets (Pipes, 2010). It is worth noting that individuals who have low income will obtain subsidies from the United States government, which will be catering for up to 100% of the monthly premiums (McCaughey, 2012). In addition, subsidies will be availed up to 400 per cent of the Federal Poverty Level. The determination of the subsidies is based on the family’s annual income, as well as the total number of dependants in that family. This ensures that individuals in the low-middle income bracket can access healthcare services if and when they need it, which goes a long way in enhancing the health of the country (McCaughey, 2012).

In addition, the Affordable Care Act reduces the healthcare costs (Murdock, 2012). The Congressional Budget Office noted that there would be a reduction in the healthcare costs in the country especially considering that the Act ensures that 95% of Americans obtain health insurance in which case there will be increased accessibility of preventative healthcare (McCaughey, 2012). It is noted that the newly insured individuals will not be waiting until their health problems become extreme to the extent of becoming an emergency, which is a relatively costly avenue (Murdock, 2012).

In addition, the Affordable Care Act would result in a reduction of the budget gaps or deficit in the country (Tate, 2012). It is estimated that by 2019, the Affordable Care Act would lower the deficit in the national budget by about $143 billion thanks to the Act’s associated fees and taxes (McCaughey, 2012). On the same note, the Congressional Budget Office opines that, by 2020, the Act would result in the elimination of the Medicare “donut hole” gap in its coverage. The donut hole is essentially a temporary limit on the things that the drug plan covers for drugs (Boehner, 2011). Once a beneficiary of Medicare has exited the initial coverage pertaining to the prescription drug plan, he or she would financially responsible for a considerably higher cost of the prescription drugs up to the time when he or she attains the catastrophic coverage threshold (Tate, 2012). This gap, however, will be eliminated by the bill thereby reducing the amounts that a beneficiary uses out of pocket for his medication.

However, the legislation has faced opposition especially from the business community. Businesses that have more than 50% full-time employees are required to pay for healthcare insurance for their workers (Boehner, 2011). This may see businesses pass the extra costs to consumers or reduce their full-time workers so as to fit in the less-than-50-fulltime-employees bracket (Atlas, 2012). On the same note, the ideal functioning of the program requires everyone to buy an insurance policy, failure to which he will have to pay “penalty income tax” (Atlas, 2012). While this may be considered a con, it goes a long way in enhancing the health of the nation in general.

In conclusion, the Affordable Care Act has been arguably the most radical program since 1965. It comes as extremely beneficial to the nation as it reduces the cost of insurance, increases coverage and eliminates the “donut hole” in the Medicare program. In addition, it reduces the budget gap thanks to the savings in the healthcare costs, as well as the fees and taxes from the Act.

References

Tate, N. J. (2012). ObamaCare survival guide. West Palm Beach, FL: Humanix Books.

Murdock, K (2012). Affordable Care Act: ObamaCare. New York: GRIN Verlag

Hill, J.W (2011). Obamacare – What’s In It. New York: Primedia E-launch LLC

Pipes, S. (2010). The truth about Obamacare. Washington, DC: Regnery Pub.

McCaughey, B (2012). Decoding the Obama Health Law: What You Need to Know. New York: Paperless Publishing LLC

Atlas, S. W. (2012). Reforming America’s Health Care System: The Flawed Vision of ObamaCare. New York: Hoover Press

Boehner, J (2011). Obamacare: A Budget-Busting, Job-Killing Health Care Law. New York: DIANE Publishing

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Affordable Health Care Act Hurting The Middle Class Or Helping The Low And Middle Class

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Background

The Affordable Care Act refers to an Act that became signed into law in March 2010 (Davidson & Stavich, 2011). It is a health care law, which aims at enhancing the health care system of Americans by broadening the health coverage and protecting the existing policy holders of health insurance. Different people have varied opinions concerning the Affordable Care Act based on its implication and benefits to them. Although the Act is viewed to benefit the poor group by offering them a health care plan that they could otherwise not access, it leaves various issues unsolved. For example, some of the issues with the Act are that, doctors lack incentive to specialize, insurance companies have issues concerning the implementation of new stipulations, and the middle income earners feel that they have the burden of paying for the poor groups (Feldman et al, 2010). This research will offer information regarding how people feel concerning the Affordable Care Act; especially the middle income earners. Since middle income earners face a problem of declining incomes as the price of basic commodities is increasing, this research will aim at finding out whether increasing the wages of the middle and low class individuals, that already have insurance, will contribute towards them going up. Key issues facing the middle income earners in the United States with regard to the Affordable Care Act will be discussed.

In conducting this research, the population segment under study is the insured middle income earners. These constitute of those individuals residing both in the rural areas and small town centers. The population segment provides workforce in varied sectors of the economy, which implies that all sectors of the economy are put into consideration. One of the major social issues that the middle income earners are facing entails the declining income while most of the basic products have an increasing trend in price; for instance, education, housing, insurance and energy. This implies that the middle income earners have a social problem of affording most of the basic products due to the increasing price of the products. Affording health is a key social problem facing the middle income earners as they are not capable of paying for their insurance; this makes them be against the Affordable Care Act. The following data depict the declining income for the middle income earners, and the increasing cost data on different basic products.

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2012/08/sdt-2012-08-22-Middle-Class-01-11.png” * MERGEFORMATINET

The percentage of income distribution in the middle income earners is showing a decreasing trend, which implies that their income is also declining within the period given.

Source: HYPERLINK “http://www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html” http://www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.html

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/USSTHPI_Max_630_378.png” * MERGEFORMATINET

The graph shows that the price of housing has been increasing over the years. This just one of the basic commodities that a middle income earner would require to keep life moving. With the decline in the income earned, it emerges that most middle income earners have issues affording basic commodities such as health.

Apart from the middle income earners having a declining income, they also have another problem, which is income inequality. Different individuals in the middle class have varied earnings as indicated in the graph below; because of the difference in incomes, different individuals have varied purchasing power, when it comes to the buying of the basic commodities (Tilly, 1991).

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://inequality.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/average-after-tax-income-by-income-group.png?6b3d07” * MERGEFORMATINET

Source: HYPERLINK “http://inequality.org/income-inequality/” http://inequality.org/income-inequality/

One of the social factors that contributes to the problem of decreasing income to the middle income earners constitute the increasing number of dependents. The size of families is increasing and has increased in the past few years, but the income level has not changed over the ears. The increasing number of dependants seeks job opportunities in the varied sectors, where the other family members are employed leading to overcrowding in the workplace. However, because everyone has to earn wages, there is a decline in whatever the families used to earn before. Since the wage does not match with the family size, affordability of health care becomes a problem. Besides, because of the higher proportion of individuals desiring to provide the labor, the wage rate declines leading to a declining earning over the years. On the other hand, wage inequality is caused by the level of education that exist between individuals. Individuals that are more literate receive a higher pay than those without education (George et al, 2006). In addition, experience constitutes another factor that influences the difference in the incomes; individuals with a lot of experience are likely to earn more than those with less or no experience.

Other than the social factors, cultural factors also contribute to the income inequalities between individuals. Based on the beliefs of some individuals, there exist differences in the type of work that one can do; for example, Muslims and Christians have different beliefs concerning the place of work. While a Christian can work confidently in a slaughter house selling bacon and cheese, it is exceedingly difficult for a Muslim to work in such an environment. Therefore, based on the beliefs, there will be inequality in incomes between individuals. Besides, the working habit of individuals determines the income earned. In addition, how one perceives a certain type of work also influences his earnings, which imply that different people will tend to choose between different jobs based on their perception towards the job. This creates income differences because different jobs attract different incomes. Because of wage inequality, the middle income earners have a problem in affording health.

The political aspect regarding the issue of affordability of health insurance is that politicians have an influence on the decision made concerning laws made by the government. This implies that, politicians can influence people to vote for the Affordable Care Act regardless of its impact on the middle income earners. After the passing of the Affordable Care Act, the politicians also have a mandate in ensuring that the Act is implemented. This implies that politicians will be against anyone opposing the Affordable Care Act since they influence the manner in which the Act becomes fully implemented as a law. Besides, the Affordable Care Act can become politicized such that the middle income earners bear all the cost of covering the health cost. For instance, politicians may fail to allocate funds on the health policy, which will shift the total burden to the middle income earners because the funds for the poor should be paid by the government, while the upper class does not need to pay for the health care since they can afford expensive health care (Hofer et al, 2011). Thus, failure of the government to chuck in resources for the care will imply that the middle income earners will pay for the health care alone since they are the major tax payers. On the economic aspect, the middle income earners will not have the capacity to afford the insurance cover because the price of other basic goods is on the rise because of inflation; house rent is also high for those middle income earners residing in small town centers. The increasing cost of rent and basic goods will make it difficult for the middle income earners to afford the health insurance. On the other hand, the middle income earners are highly taxed, which implies that they are left with little income to spend, which makes it difficult to afford the health care insurance. The legal aspect of the issue is that once the Affordable Care Act became a law, it has to be amended despite the effect on the middle income earners.

The ethical aspect of the issue is that a policy is not supposed to favor a certain group or individuals at the expense of others, but should benefit all stakeholders equally. The Affordable Care Act tends to favor the poor at the expense of the middle income earners since the poor do not need to contribute anything since it is catered for by the government; however, the middle income earners pay higher taxes in order to facilitate the success of the program. Based on the income that the middle income earners receive, they should not pay higher taxes than the upper class in facilitating the program. The Affordable Care Act is not ethical since it does not benefit all the stakeholders equally, or based on the contribution. Practically, the Affordable Care Act benefits the poor more than the middle income earners, who pay high insurance costs for the medical care. Based on the features of the Affordable Care Act, it is practical but affects the middle income earners the most, despite their declining incomes and increasing inflation.

Different levels contribute to the failure of the middle income earners to afford insurance for the health cover proposed by the Affordable Care Act; these levels entail personal, group and societal levels. At a personal level, the problem is usually contributed by the education level. The level of education determines what a person earns; therefore, individuals with low literacy levels receive low incomes, which implies that they will eventually have a problem with affording the insurance cover proposed by the Affordable Care Act. At the group level, the chief contributing factor of the issue is politics. Political leaders area usually involved in the making of policies, which affect taxation and rates. As a result of political leaders passing policies that encourage high taxation on the middle income earners, the middle income earners are immensely affected by the taxes leading to their failure in affording the medical insurance cover as proposed by the Affordable Care Act. On the other hand, at the societal level, inequalities in the incomes paid are the chief contributor to the affordability problem (Jennifer & Jeffrey, 2002). Because of the income inequalities in the society, middle income earners receive low income, which make affordability of the medical cover a problem.

The Affordable Care Act has personal, professional and ethical implications to the society. Because of the rising cost of insurance, individuals that are salaried will need to pay higher insurance premium, which implies that they will need to fetch deep into their incomes. This will definitely reduce the savings since the salaried will need to spend more than they used to before the Affordable Care Act. Besides, since the Affordable Care Act proposes health for all, some people may not have access to health facilities because of too much formality and congestion. The Affordable Care Act is going to impact the professionalism in the society; people will be focused more on the provision of the health care insurance for everyone; forgetting about the issue of the health care workforce. Failure to provide enough workforce will create problems in the society since the health care may have only a few professionals, which imply that the service delivery will be greatly affected. Because of fewer health care professionals and the increasing number of individuals requiring medical care, there will be inefficiencies in the delivering of services to the people, which may even lead to poor health care. Therefore, rather than enhancing the health care, the Affordable Care Act may negatively impact it. Besides, it is going to impact professionalism because although it provides a direction regarding the provision of health care, it does not provide a model concerning how health care providers will receive compensation for non-payment. On the other hand, the Affordable Care Act will also have ethical implications in society. Although the Affordable Care Act seeks to bring equality in the provision of health care to all individuals, it may be unethical because are not likely to receive health benefits commensurate to their payment. The Affordable Care Act leads to an increased insurance, but does not provide enough workforce. This implies that individuals will not be capable of receiving value for their contribution.

The two sociological perspectives that can be used in providing an explanation concerning the challenges faced by the insured middle income earners. The two perspectives are functionalist and conflict perspectives. The challenge faced by the insured middle income earners is social stratification, which makes it difficult for them to afford the increasing cost of insurance. According to the functionalist perspective, social stratification is deemed necessary so as to induce individuals with special knowledge, skills, and intelligence to enter the most vital occupations (Erickson & Goldthorpe, 2002). Hence, stratification is necessary and inevitable. Therefore, the insured middle income earners face the challenge because of their education level and level of intelligence. On the other hand, according to the conflict theory, social stratification is a consequence of lack of opportunity and due to prejudice and discrimination against a group. Therefore, it is not necessary and inevitable. Therefore, the insured middle income earners face the challenge of low income due to lack of opportunity. For example, most of the middle income earners are educated but lack the opportunity to have sufficient education to put them in the upper income group. The following data shows income inequality in the middle income earners, which is a principal challenge that they face. The following data illustrates the income inequality emanating from education, which is a key issue in the middle income earners. Depending with the level of education, income increase as the education level increases.

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Education_Median_Income_2.png” * MERGEFORMATINET

Source: US Census Bureau

Research Proposal

The social issue affecting the insured middle income earners constitutes the problem of wage that does not match up with their family size due to the influence of inflation. The research will involve determining whether an increase in the wages of the low and middle class individuals that are already insured contributes in keeping them going up. The research study is fundamental since there is little existing knowledge on the issue because only a few research studies to find out the same have been conducted. Carrying of this research will help in uncovering knowledge that was not revealed by the earlier studies concerning the issue of study. However, based on the current studies on the research issue, there are no meaningful solutions that have been offered, which implies that carrying out this study will provide an insight for future studies that will deal with the issue at hand. Since no meaningful solutions have been offered by earlier studies concerning the issue, this research will try to fill the gaps that earlier studies did not fill. On the other hand, this research will also try to determine the effects of inflation on the payment pattern of insurance with a potential increase in wages. Since inflation is considered a principal source of social problems such as an increase in commodity prices and insurance costs, it will be critical to find out the effects of inflation on the payment pattern of insurance services with the increase in wages. This will be critical since it will help in understanding whether it will be necessary for the government to increase the wage in the low and middle income groups.

This research will involve only one group of participants because the use of several target groups will lead to the study consuming a lot of time. According to Gray (2009), a researcher incorporating the use of varied distinct target groups forces a researcher to spend more time studying the groups. Therefore, in order to take less time, this research will deal with only one group of participants; the participants will engage insured middle income earners. The time that the research is scheduled to take will be a maximum of one month. Nevertheless, in order to ensure that the research adheres to this timeframe, it will be vital to consider adopting staffing initiatives. According to Gray (2009), the process of collecting data and compiling it consumes a lot of time. This makes time the most vital factor to consider in conducting the research. Hence, it is exceedingly crucial to for a researcher to engage the help of all the research takers and participants so as to ensure that the study takes the shortest time possible. It is only with the assistance of the participants and research takers that the maximum time allocated to the research can be realized. Sometimes, the individuals conducting the research may not cooperate due to personal differences that emerge; this makes it hand to accomplish the research within the stipulated time. However, this research will ensure that the persons conducting the research cooperate with each other so as to complete the project within the time frame projected of one month.

From a staffing perspective, the research is projected to be conducted by two individuals. The two individuals will share duties as follows; the first person will be responsible for performing the process of collecting data from the participants while the second person will take the responsibility of compilation of the data collected. Through this cooperation between the two staff members, it will be feasible to realize the conduction of the research within the stipulated time of one month. The staff members that will engage in conducting of the research will be required to be competent enough and having the required qualification. This will ensure the research is conducted efficiently and with accuracy, which implies that there will be elimination of errors in the collection and compiling of the data. Besides, in order to ensure that the research is conducted within the projected time frame, the researcher needs to ensure that there is maximum cooperation between the research staffs and the participants. Since the required information comes from the participants, it is critical to ensure that the language used to the participants is easy to understand and simple.

From the target group, which comprises of insured middle income earners, a group of 20 subjects will be selected as the sample population, which will represent the interests of the entire population. This number was chosen since; according to research theory, it is fundamental to ensure taking a small proportion of a population from the participants in order to maintain objectivity. This provides a rationale for choosing the sample population as 20 participants. In drawing these subjects, the researcher will utilize simple random sampling where every participant of the sample population will have an equal opportunity of participating. One the sample population is identified, the researcher will continue to the data collection phase. In collecting data, the researcher will institute an online survey, where participants from the sample population will be required to vote in an independent manner. The voting will involve providing responses in terms of those in favor of the Affordable Care Act as of assistance to them, and those against the Affordable Care Act as hurting them. This implies that the online survey will be exceedingly easy for participants to take part in.

Once the data has been collected, the researcher will embark on data analysis. Emanating from the nature of the data collection method, and the form of data collected, the researcher will integrate the use of a statistical analysis tool, which in this case will be the Chi-square. Chi-square statistical will be used since it can successfully compare the observed data with the data that the researcher would expect to obtain according to the hypothesis of the study. Besides, the Chi-square will be used because of the nature of the research questions. According to Gray (2009), chi-square is used in testing a hypothesis with whether or not attribute of a sample. In fact, this is what the research question entails; it is focused towards determining whether increasing the wages of the low and middle class individuals, who are already insured, contributes towards keeping them going up. Therefore, the analysis tool chosen will be chi-square.

Thea successful completion of this research will be exceedingly essential to the academic field. Learners will benefit from using the solutions presented in this research in answering questions regarding the issue under study. The study will also add learners some knowledge they did not have before learning from the research; for instance, since there is no research that has explicitly provided a solution to the question under study, this research will help students gaining an understanding and adding knowledge concerning the question under study. Other researchers in the academic field are also likely to benefit from this research because they will use information presented in this research in building their research studies provided their research will have a relationship with the subject matter being studied. Besides, in the academic field, the research will add up to the existing information and at the same time fill the gaps that earlier researches have not filled. Apart from being essential to the academic field, the research will also be essential to the society. To the society, the research findings and recommendations will be used in establishing the levels of wage increase that the government can provide to the workers with insurance so as to keep them up. This is a vital aspect to the society since it will help the government in eradicating social problems that emerge due to inflation and low income. On the other hand, for the agencies, the recommendations and findings will help in motivating them to seek ways in which they can mitigate current inflation because it is continuously hurting the population under study. Government agencies are likely to be the most beneficiaries of the resulting data. This is because the data provided by the study usually apply to the government agencies. Hence, the agencies will be ready to use the information in order to mitigate issues relating to inflation.

Conclusion

The signing of the Affordable Care Act into law was geared towards ensuring that every citizen, whether affluent or poor, has an access to affordable care. This was to be realized to be realized through the government providing a funding for the poor while the middle income earners and the upper class could contribute accordingly in order to make this Act a success. However, it has emerged that most individuals have varied perspectives and feelings concerning the Affordable Care Act. This is in regard to those who are against the act and those who are for the Act. Some individuals claim that the government will require to contribute a lot of resources in order to fund the project while others see it as a good move by the government. The poor are for the act because they seem to benefit the most, while the mid income earners who are insured view it differently. According to the insured middle income earners, they are the most contributors of the health cover proposed by the Affordable Care Act because they are highly taxed, despite their declining incomes. Factors leading to the declining income entails, income inequality, increasing number of dependants and inflation. Because of the low income that the insured middle income earners receive and inflation, they are not capable of paying for basic commodities such as rent and health. Research indicates that by increasing the wages of the low and middle class individuals, who are already insured, is a vital aspect since it contributes towards keeping them going up. Therefore, the government should focus on determining the wage level that needs to be paid to the low and middle income group individuals, with insurance, so as to keep the level of inflation down and keep the individuals in the group going up. This will be critical in reducing the number of individuals that cannot pay for basic commodities.

References

Gamble V N. (1997). Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care.American Journal of Public Health, 1773-1778.

Blendon RJ, Aiken LH, Freeman HE, Corey CR. Access to medical care for black and white Americans. A matter of continuing concern. JAMA. 1989 Jan 13;261 (2): 278–281.

Steffie Woolhandler et al. (2003). Costs of Health Care Administration in the United States and Canada. The New England Journal of Medicine, 768-775.

Davidson, H. R. & Stavich, S. P. (2011, Feb). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and Health Care Fraud Sentences. Federal Sentencing Reporter, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 233-238.

Hofer, N. A., Jean, M. A. & Ira, M. (2011, March). Expansion of Coverage under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and Primary Care Utilization. The Milbank QuarterlyVol. 89, No. 1, pp. 69-89.

Gray, D. E. (2009). Doing Research in the Real World. New York, NY: SAGE.

Eibner, Girosi, Miller, Cordova, McGlynn, Pace, Price, Vardavas & Gresenz, R.C. (2011, June). Employer Self-Insurance Decisions and the Implications of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as Modified by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (ACA). Rand Corporation.

Feldman, E, Hall, H. P., Kaiser, L., Martin, S., Monheit, A. C. & Smith, J. (2010). The Promise and Pitfalls of the Federal Health Care Reform Law for Nonprofit Health Care Organizations and the People They Serve. Inquiry, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 278-284.

Erikson, R & Goldthorpe, H.J. (2002). Intergenerational Inequality: A Sociological Perspective. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 31-44.

George, R. G. C., Lixin, C. X. & Heng-fu, Z. (2006, Jan). Finance and Income Inequality: What Do the Data Tell Us? Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 578-596.

Jennifer, M. & Jeffrey, M. (2002). Income Inequality and Health Status in the United States: Evidence from the Current Population Survey. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 510-539.

Tilly, C. (1991, Dec). Understanding Income Inequality. Sociological Forum, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 739-756.

Ethnocentrism

A study of intercultural aspects of non verbal communication provides a glimpse into the numerous assumptions an individual usually makes when it comes to communication, as well as the differing meanings that can often be assigned to non verbal communication, depending on an individual’s culture. The fact that one form of non-verbal communication can be assigned totally opposite meanings in different cultures is actually quite eye opening. Further, the natural reaction an individual usually has towards the differing meaning is usually proof of ethnocentrism, and how essentially almost everyone is affected by ethnocentrism, to the point of even becoming offended when one suggests that the use of a certain gesture is prohibited within a particular culture.

For instance, in some cultures, maintaining eye contact is considered to be disrespectful, while in other cultures such as mine, it is actually encouraged, to the extent that not maintaining eye contact can actually be considered disrespectful and a sign of dishonesty. If I were therefore to come across an individual who does not maintain eye contact, I would have a very bad perception and opinion of them. This would be regardless of my knowledge of the existence of differences in the interpretation and practice of eye contact, implying a difficulty accepting the different cultural implications of maintaining eye contact. This difficulty accepting the fact that other cultures interpret non verbal signs differently is a classic sign of ethnocentrism of the highest order. Learning about the different interpretations of non verbal communication, I commonly use, but admittedly having a difficult time understanding these interpretations, is a sign of ethnocentrism, as it shows that I have come to accept my own interpretations and cultural views as the norm, and the alternatives as the abnormal, even though that may not be the case.

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Ethos and Coping with Stress

Ethos refers to one of the approaches to formulating convincing arguments based on an author or speaker’s credibility and reputation as an authority in the given field. At times it encompasses the ability of an author to project themselves as an authority worth listening to or believing on a given subject matter. In order for an article to make for convincing reading

Coping with Stress

Ethos in this article is conveyed through the tone taken by the author, who right from the start conveys a sense of authority and knowledge in the subject matter being discussed. The author begins first by providing a detailed introduction of stress. This is followed by an organized description of the symptoms that usually accompany stress and recommendations on how to deal with stress, as a counselor, parent, educator or individual. The manner with which the author presents the information not only makes the article convincing, but it also makes him come across as an authority within the field of psychology. Simply from reading the article, the reader can be convinced of the author’s credentials and the article’s relevance and validity. Ethos is used effectively in the article, because at no point is the reader in doubt that the article is providing factual information. This indicates that ethos has been used effectively and the author’s authority on the subject is unquestionable. The use of third person within the article also eliminates any doubts as to the author’s degree of certainty in the information provided.

How Plagiarism Occurs

In this article, the author projects an air of authority that the reader senses stems from the author’s many years (20). Further, the fact that the author is a tutor, means that he/she has numerous experience in matters regarding plagiarism, which puts him/her in the perfect position to describe how plagiarism occurs. Not only does the author clearly outline what plagiarism is, but he/she also goes ahead and outlines how it occurs based on experience. On the basis of the fact that the author has already made it clear that he/she has been a tutor for many years, the arguments put forth over how plagiarism occurs are very convincing, as it is easy for the reader to believe that indeed whatever the author is describing, is something he/she has encountered on numerous occasions. Ethos has been used effectively in this article, through establishing and conveying the author as an authority in the field in question, making the arguments presented quite convincing.

Why Calorie Counting is an Eating Disorder

The article is not very convincing, while the use of ethos within it is also quite questionable. Even the manner with which the author starts the article leaves a lot more questions than answers regarding not just the author’s authority over the matter, but also the message itself. The use of phrases such as “I think so” and “she expresses it more eloquently than I ever could” do not inspire confidence in the author and the message carried by the article. Not only does the author fail to inspire confidence in his/her authority on the subject under discussion, but he/she also fails to inspire confidence in the message itself. The article does not come across as factual, but simply an expression of the author’s personal opinion not backed by empirical evidence. Ethos is not effectively used in the writing of this article.

Works Cited

CDC. Coping with Stress. Web.

Diet Doctor. Why Calorie Counting is an Eating Disorder. Web.

“How Plagiarism Occurs.” Web.

Afghanistan Non-Profit Organization Costs

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Afghanistan Non-Profit Organization Costs

What are the government regulations that can affect the cost or financial issues of a Non-profit Organization in Afghanistan?

Non – governmental organizations in many countries are controlled and regulated by rules and laws set aside by governments both at the national and local level, and Afghanistan is no exception. Afghanistan as a country has experienced many civil wars fought over along time along different tribes and religious sects of the religions in the country. The relationship between Afghanistan and many NGOs in the past has been challenging bearing in mind that most NGOs in the past had an influence and was related to the west (Humanitarian News and Analysis, 2005). The relationship between Afghanistan and many countries in the middle-East in general with those from the west was poor and full of suspicion. NGOs in some instances were viewed to be spies that pretended to come in the name of NGOs, and this made to stricter and tighter rules to be formulated by the then regimes. However, with the change of the regimes form the early 2000s, many NGOs have been allowed to operate in the various fields and the rules have been changed to a larger extent (Emadi & Palgrave Connect, 2010). These rules and regulations have affected the costs incurred by NGOs operating in Afghanistan.

There are many barriers to entry in the NGOs world, and there are rules that guide the domestic and foreign NGOs. For instance, foreign citizens are prohibited from serving as founders of such NGOs. Foreign NGOs have also to follow a thorough and strict process in registering done by the ministry of foreign affairs and ministry of Economy. This increases the cost and time spent in the process of establishing such institutions. The NGOs are also restricted against participating in political activities or condemning any political process even if it affects the dockets that they are involved in. These are the major barriers and challenges that NGOs in Afghanistan face even though in some areas where they observe strict religious beliefs in the sects and practices, they have incorporated religion as one element that has to be considered before the NGOs can operate within the areas. The country’s legal system has undergone many changes that have impacted both the civil society and the NGO world in the country (NGO Law Monitor, 2013). For instance in the year 2005 June, the president of Afghanistan Karzai signed law on NGOs that regulated the conduct of the organizations.

What are the economic perspectives that can affect the cost or financial issues of a Non-profit Organization in Afghanistan?

Any organizations whether form public or private has to incur economic costs at any process of the development. At the initiation and formulation stage, costs for putting up the required infrastructure and resources prove t be relevant. The costs of the projects intended to be established have to be considered, and the NGOs have to ensure that the costs are sustainable and manageable that will carter for the processes involved in the project that the group intends to establish. Different NGOs are involved in varied fields that try to address different issues and concerns facing the society and community that they work in (Levitt & World Bank, 2011). This, therefore, means that the costs incurred is different since various projects require different costs. For instance, an NGO that is concerned with the health sectors and provisions of health care services has a different cost than that in the education sector or even poverty eradication projects. The operation costs have to be factored in, as well. The decisions and perspectives that reduces expenses in non-essential and focuses most of its resources in addressing the main concerns should be encouraged by the NGOs that prove to be effective and efficient in tackling concerns of the community and society at large.

The costs of materials and resources t can in one way or the other affects the economic perspective of the NGOs in executing their duties and mandates. NGOs should procure for goods and material that they intend to use in a competitive manner that reduce the costs and get them a better deal. This will be subject t the performance of the economy where the NGOs are operating from. Transportation costs have also to be factored in as well that facilitate the operational costs in general. Therefore, projects established by the NGOs have to be able to match to the budget expectations of the organizations that enable them launch and run programs that will impact the society in full positively (Tomsen, 2011). The way and means of financing the projects have to be clear and sustainable over the period that the NGOs intend to run the various projects that they are concerned with. Many issues relating to financial and economic perspective have to be considered for any NGO before, during and after launching of the various projects that they are involved in.

What are the cultural issues that can affect the cost or financial issues of a Non-profit Organization in Afghanistan?

Afghanistan is a country that is rich in culture. Culture as a broad concept that touches on many things from what wear to what we eat impacts on both pubic and private institutions in equal measure (Abirafeh, 2009). Religion is a key and part of the culture that has shaped many developments in Afghanistan and the Middle East in general. Religion shape and influence culture in such areas to a great extent such that it can determine as well the kind of dress, food and conduct of individuals in the NGO world and those benefiting from their services. Some NGOs have to incorporate in cultural factors in the communities that they operate in ordered to be received and be accepted t by the communities that they operate from (Levitt & World Bank, 2011). For instance, cultural issues such as education and religion can be incorporated in the NGOs programs to encourage the communities and beneficiaries of such help to accord the NGOs acceptance ad to bond in the community.

For instance, if it is a community that values and considers certain type and dress style, employees of the NGO can result to dressing in a manner that conforms and respects the culture of the host’s community and this it is asserted facilitates positive relations between the NGOs and the community making their goals and objectives to be realized with much ease. Depending on the environment that the NGO operates from, it determines how the cultural factors influence the NGO’s operations. Communities that are perceived to be conservative will require then NGOs to adhere to most of the cultural requirements and concerns of the host community unlike a community that is liberal and free (Reliefe web, 2003). Communities have cultural celebrations and, therefore, they have to incorporate these events in their programs and celebrate alongside the rest of communities. Incorporating such cultural events in some NGOs has proved to be costly and expensive in some instances even though it portrays the NGO in good light in relation to the host community.

What would be approximate start up cost or financial issues be for a non-profit organization to provide needs as:

For NGOs to provide service effectively and efficiently, they have to incur many costs in various areas that end up constituting to the total costs incurred for operation of the enterprise. There are many direct and indirect costs that rare involved and incurred in establishing and coming up with NGOs (Emadi & Palgrave Connect, 2010). The appropriate costs for any NGO in any area to launch an operation will depend on a variety of factors such as resources that the NGO has, the intended number of beneficiary and area to be covered, the costs required for registration among other costs such training of personnel and hiring experienced personnel. For NGOs involved in provision of needs such as food, shelter, education for young boys and girls, education for female students, attracting volunteers, hiring employees, and arranging future employment opportunities for female students

INCLUDEPICTURE “http://www.tradingeconomics.com/charts/afghanistan-gdp-growth-annual.png?s=afgstangdpate” * MERGEFORMATINET

Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 1 Afghanistan GDP

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Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 2 Foreign Aid

References

Abirafeh, L. (2009). Gender and international aid in Afghanistan: The politics and effects of intervention. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co.

Emadi, H., & Palgrave Connect (Online service). (2010). Dynamics of political development in Afghanistan: The British, Russian, and American invasions. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Humanitarian News and Analysis. (2005, March 31). Afghanistan: New code of conduct to regulate NGOs. Retrieved from http://www.irinnews.org/report/28641/afghanistan-new-code-of-conduct-to-regulate-ngos

Levitt, E., & World Bank. (2011). Malnutrition in Afghanistan: Scale, scope, causes, and potential response. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

NGO Law Monitor: Afghanistan (2013, November 4.) The International Center or not for Profit Law. ICNL. Retrieved from http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/afghanistan.htm

Reliefe web. ( 2003, March 19.) Afghanistan: NGO concern over new regulatory framework. Retrieved from http://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-ngo-concern-over-new-regulatory-framework

Tomsen, P. (2011). The wars of Afghanistan: Messianic terrorism, tribal conflicts, and the failures of great powers. New York: PublicAffairs.

Aflatoxins are harmful chemicals produced by two species of fungi: Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic and toxic, causing diseases in animals and humans when they consume contaminated feeds. There are various types of Aflatoxins, which are classified in groups of B, G, and M. The B Aflatoxins emit a blue color while the G Aflatoxins have a green light under the UV light. Aflatoxins B1 is produced by both Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus molds, and is the most carcinogenic and toxic. The M aflatoxins are metabolites of the B1 aflatoxins, and are detected in milk and urine of animals fed on contaminated feeds.

The Aspergillus mold is ubiquitous, occurring everywhere, especially during winter and autumn. It is also found at home in damp places especially in bedding. The mold mainly grows on plants and plant produce such as corn, nuts, rice, crude vegetable oil and other dried foods. It also grows on decayed vegetation, hay and soil. High temperatures of about 80° F and moisture of about 85% humidity are favorable conditions for the growth of the mold. The mold attacks field crops when there is delayed drying or damp storage. The presence of rodents and insects in the harvested crop also facilitates the growth of the mold. Processed foods such as milk, yoghurt, and cheese may also contain aflatoxins if the animal fed on contaminated feeds.

The Aspergillus mold belongs to the phylum Ascomycota, which is also known as sac fungi. The members of this phylum reproduce both sexually through ascospores and asexually through conidia. The ascus is the identifying characteristic of this phylum, where meiosis and nuclear fission take place. Members of Ascomycota are the most dangerous of all fungi, and cause serious infections and diseases in animals and humans. Conversely, some members are useful in making products relevant to humans. For example, Penicillin is used to manufacture antibiotics, while yeast is used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation. Truffles and morels are also useful members of Ascomycota, which are used as delicacies.

Aflatoxins cause aflatoxicosis in animals and humans, which is a hepatic disease. The disease affects people from all age groups and sexes, but young ones are most susceptible. In animals, the disease causes reduced production of milk and eggs, and liver damage. The symptoms include jaundice, anemia, low reproduction levels, reduced efficiency and feed utilization, and gastrointestinal dysfunction. Lactating animals are also affected by M1 aflatoxins, which is present in milk. In humans, the symptoms include vomiting, abdominal pain, hemorrhaging, edema, coma, convulsions, difficulty in digestion and absorption of food, mental impairment, liver cancer, and death. Aflatoxins mainly affect the liver and suppress the immune system in both animals and humans, causing cancer. Prolonged exposure to aflatoxins results in DNA mutations and impairment in growth and development. In both animals and humans, the severity of the disease depends on various factors such as diet, length of exposure, sex, gender, environmental factors, and immunity.

What inspired me to write about aflatoxins is the fact that it is one of the most toxic mycotoxins in the world. In addition, it affects the staple foods such as grains, nuts, and corn, which are the most consumed foods globally. The fungi that produce aflatoxins are found all over the world, in nearly all the continents. Thus, it was worth writing about aflatoxins, as one of the most toxic mycotoxin in the world.

Etic and Emic Events

Name

Course

Instructor’s name

Date

Fafafini

Fafafini are males yet they are raised and regarded as females in the Samoan society. The Fafafini execute some significant functions in their community and because work role in the society is gender based, the Fafafini usually do activities that are meant for females. They usually do domestic chores and other activities that cannot be performed by females because they are physically stronger than females (Schmidt, 2001). Moreover, the Fafafini normally have sexual relationship with men and the relationship is regarded as heterosexual. The view of the relationship between the Fafafini and males is an emic view from the Samoan community perspective whereas the view of the relationship as homosexual is an etic perspective from Westerners who only know of two culturally constructed genders, male and female.

Pibloktog

Is a condition that was studied by EdwardFoulks in 1972 and is experienced by Inuits. This condition is called Arctic Hysteria and some of the symptoms include manic episode where an individuals may remove their clothing, run around wildly into water, or roll around the snow as they make nonsense sound s or speak uncontrollably. According to Adler (1995), Foulks argued that surfers of the condition also have conditions that may be diagnosed in Western culture including schizophrenia although none of the conditions corresponds to western diagnosis. Although the western people also experience similar symptoms, the diagnosis differs hence prompting Foulk to conclude that there must be a cultural component to the disorder (Adler, 1995). He considered the culture separately to understand the cause of Arctic Hysteria and resolved that the cause could be social pressures and severe and current ear infections.

References

Adler, L. L. (1995). Spirit versus Scalpel: Traditional Healing and Modern Psychotherapy. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Bergin & Garvey.

Schmidt, J. (2001). “Redefining Fa’afafine: Western Discourses and the Construction of Transgenderism in Samoa.” Journal of the Polynesian Society, 86, 157–182.

Etihad Airways CSR

Company Background Information

Etihad airway is an UAE flag bearer airline that was established in 2003 in Abu Dhabi. With its head office based in Khalifa City A, the fastest growing airline as rated by the international air transport association operates its services around the world transporting passengers and cargos to about 82 destinations in more than 50 countries. The airline is governed under the leadership of HH Sheikh Hamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan who directs a board of directors who are headed by the chief executive officer Mr. James Hogan.

Introduction

The airline management team recognizes that engaging in corporate social affairs is a vital and critical matter that can enhance the company success, build and protects the company brand image which can consequently lead to increase in terms of growth and profit. They have thus incorporated the responsibility towards the protection and improvement of the society in the company’s mission and vision statements as well as in the company’s goals and objectives.

Integration of the CSR program with the Company’s Vision

The Etihad airways vision clearly defines and expresses their commitment towards social responsibility since they are not only interested in making profits but to offer sophisticated and professionalized services to their esteemed clients who are promised a relaxing experience during their travel. Through their vision, the Etihad airways are determined to add value to the Abu Dhabi community since the vision seeks to enhance the Arabian culture and to promote their prestige making it to be one of the most hospitable places in the world.

They thus offer their services with an aim of selling and promoting the Arabian culture which attracts international investors and foreign tourists whose investments helps to improve the country, s economy. In addition, the airline vision proves their responsibility towards social welfare since they promises their clients a safe and environmentally friendly experience as they travel to their destinations.

Integration of the CSR program with the Company’s Mission

Central to their operation, the Etihad airways have a social driven mission which prompts them to apply their entrepreneurial success and their reputable names to not only make profits but to make positive social changes in the community. They have thus incorporated their commitment to meet societal needs in their mission statements and have consistently made positive impacts in the society by tackling major social issues. Additionally, the airline has declared their missions publicly which shows their accountability, transparency and trust towards the people in the society.

Integration of the CSR program with the Company’s Objectives

The Etihad airline company’s goals and objectives have strengthened their commitments towards social issues since they aim to improve and enhance the culture of the people in Abu Dhabi. They are committed to improve the quality of life and to promote unity by linking their international clients with the Arabians which enhance peace and international coercions. They have also included the concern of environmental issues and social responsibility in their objectives. Lastly their main goal, which is to offer the best hospitability in the world, reflects a social commitment to the people in the society.

Integration of the CSR program with the Company’s Philosophy

The company’s principles and philosophy are aimed at strengthening shareholders relations while offering them quality services. They therefore create good customer relations, strong supplier’s relationships, improved employees productivity and better community relations which they achieve through demonstrations of consistent ethical involvement towards the social affairs.

Challenges Encountered with the Integration of the CSR Program

The Etihad airline company has encountered challenges while responding to the issues of corporate social responsibility. First, they have engaged into many social affairs which they are obligated to fulfill in order to maintain their brand name. The process of integrating the corporate social responsibility into the management strategies and involving the company’s various stakeholders is expensive and complex and it requires a lot of paper works and finances. In addition, in spite of building a reputable company brand, the costs that the airline uses to engage in social affairs often outweighs their financial gains which create some financial constraint within the company.

Etihad airways CSR program in the last 3 years

However, in spite of these challenges, the Etihad airline company has publicly implemented a sustainable social responsibility program with a creation of a corporate social responsibility programs with strategies that engages all their stake holders. The airlines have come up with a corporate social responsibility program with activities that impact on various stakeholders comprising of the employees, the community, business partners, customers, shareholders, suppliers and the government. The airline has demonstrated a commitment to ascertain and meet the social needs and expectation of each and every stakeholder as outlined in the company profile in the last three years.

Preservation and protection of the Environmental

With regard to the environmental issues, the airline has demonstrated an interest in the well being the people since they are engaged in various environmental preservations activities. For instance, they offer several eco friendly services that are aimed at reducing the pollution brought about by its operations. They engage the people in the society to take actions aimed at preserving their surrounding environments.

After realizing that their operations through the use of airplanes impacts serious environmental degradation, the airline has engaged in other positive and environmental friendly activities such as energy saving initiatives where staffs are trained on activities such as recycling, switching powers and lighting when not needed in a facility known as the green office champions. They have employed noise management schemes to protect the people around the aircrafts area by creating noise regulatory equipments as well as acquiring air craft engines that are compliance with the standards put forward by the ICAO.

The airline has also implemented a waste management practice where bio degradable plastics, polystyrene cups and paper bags are recycled. The Etihad airline has formed partnership with various environmental organizations that are sensitive towards the use of the environment. The associations includes among others, the emirates environmental group, the environmental policy group of the Arabs air carriers, Abu Dhabi environmental group and sustainable aviation fuel users group. The airline founded the masdar institute where members are obliged to investigate the viability of the use of biofuel to replace the use of carbon emitting fuels in our environments.

Contribution towards the Community

In addition to preservation of environments, the Etihad airline has initiated various community development projects that add value to the well being of the people in the society. for instance, the use of financial and materials contribution to support education, promotion of health facilities to help the sick and the poor as well as helping to eliminate diseases and poverty in Abu Dhabi.

For instance, in 2010, the Etihad airline responded to crisis and humanitarian issues where they provided medical services, relief items and means of transport in support of the victims of Haiti disaster. They also undertook several activities in aid of the displayed children in Pakistan disaster and supported volunteers with food staff, materials and financial assistance in response to Queensland flood disaster in Australia. The airline is a registered member of various humanitarian airline initiatives group that provide transport to charitable organizations freely or at reduced costs to respond to disaster management for example, the care by air group and the international society of transport aircraft trading (ISTAT)

Contribution towards Economic Growth

In addition, the airline has significantly contributed towards the economic growth and developments. The airline is one of the main employers who offer job opportunity to the people across the U.A.E community and internationally creating an economic boost for the country and enhancing the lives of many people in the community. They also respond to harmful social issues such as offering relief aids and food to the affected and the unfortunate members of the community.

They have initiated several empowering programs that enhance the lives of the people in the society. They deliver vocational training programs, education and assisting community members with life empowerment opportunities. For instance, they work together with the mosaic group which is an initiative where students and young people meet to address global issues while developing quality leadership skills across the Muslim countries.

The airline has also supported the child welfare scheme with material and financial support. This is a scheme that target vulnerable children in marginalized areas where they give them protection, access to medical services and delivery of early childhood education. They also support mothers with financial contributions to help them give proper care to nursing children.

Again, the Etihad airline has contributed in the promotion of the Arabian heritage and culture. This has in turn attracted major international investors and has promoted the tourism industry in a significant way. The facilitation of International trade and entry of many tourists has further enhanced the U.A.E economy and has lead to the promotion of international peace and unity. The airline numerous commercial operations has increased the company profits which has created a direct economic contribution to the UAE countries in terms of productivity and labour supply

The Company’s Offer of Sponsorship Programs

Lastly, they have engaged in various sponsorship programs across the community such as sponsoring sports activities, arts and cultural activities. The airline engages in various activities to support and empower the young people in the society. For instance, since 2010, the Etihad airline has been the official airline offering services to the off screen social enterprise, a program that promotes intercultural understanding among young people. The program initiates activities such as photography, fashion design, film and creative communication which inspire youth to build positive educational legacy across border.

Towards the end of 2008, moving on to the consecutive years, the Etihad airline sponsored various sporting activities that natured talents from the grassroots level especially the popular football sport. Through their partnership with the Manchester city FC team and their involvement in the English premier league activities, the airline has opened the Etihad airways Manchester city soccer school that trained many young and upcoming soccer sportsmen in the U.A.E community. They conduct annual tour to various schools giving Manchester city FC t-shirts and have sponsored many exhibition matches across the emirates nation.

Contribution towards Employee’s Welfare

Employee’s welfare is an integral matter that the Etihad airline has put an emphasized focus in their corporate social responsibility program. The employees are honored with the competitive remunerations coupled with other benefits such as education allowances, house ownership schemes and family and friends supplementary tickets. They get quality health benefits as well as motivating pension schemes for themselves and for their immediate family members.

The employees are offered with a complex accommodation structures complete with a pharmacy, medical centre, restaurants, a Spa and banking services. The CSR program is committed to the wellbeing of the employees in term of health and safety measures. In addition to compliance of all the laid down safety legislations, the employees enjoys a healthy and safety training programs and are given a conducive work environment.

The employees enjoy special training programs such as the induction training where new employees are enlightened and accorded with the appropriate assistance relating to their new roles. The airline has also established a state of art training academy where the employees are trained in such matter as management developments, communication skills and group dynamic coaching.

Contribution towards the Company’s Stakeholders

The Etihad airline corporate social responsibility program has also incorporated their esteemed shareholders, business partners, and the UAE government in their corporate social responsibility program. They collaboratively engage their shareholder in their CSR strategies by identifying the areas of concern to which they would like the team to include and prioritize in the program. They also openly report their CSR programs annually and welcome shareholders opinion, suggestions and feedback.

The airline has solid associations with their business partners and government agency where they work together to initiate and implement social activities such as environmental issues and community development programs. The airline also understands that it is their social responsibility to comply with all the laid down governments rules and regulations and they have committed to full compliance with all the legal issues.

Awards and Recognitions due to the Company’s CSR Initiatives

Through their sustainable corporate social responsibility, the Etihad airline has received a number of awards which has enhanced their reputation and created a good brand name and company profile. For example, in 2010, the airline received the Arabian sponsorship awards top honor in the international sponsorship category for their contribution and involvement in the English premier league sponsoring the Manchester city FC team.

In addition, the airline received recognition for their commitment in environmental and health issues as well as their contribution towards community development by the global national forum for environment and health. They were honored with the 2012 prestigious Global Corporate Social Responsibility Leadership Premium Award in an occasion held in Pakistan.

In celebration of their excellence in social responsibilities, the Etihad airways were awarded with the Europeans sponsorship of the year for their involvement in sports, media, entertainment and culture in the region and across the international border.

Finally, in the 8th annual international business awards, the Etihad airways received the UAE distinguished honor of the corporate social responsibility program of the year in the Middle East and Africa for their contribution towards the national workforce.

Conclusion

In conclusion, as seen in their vision and mission statement and as evidenced by their numerous awards received for their continued commitment in social affairs, the Etihad airways have produced sustainable corporate social responsibilities that continue to impact positively on the community within and outside its operation boundaries.

This has in return enhanced the company brand name and reputation which has made it to be one of the leading airlines in the UAE countries and also internationally. Their continued efforts in offering professional and quality services has lead to success in its growth records and increase in profit margins.

References

Dalton, D. R, Cosier, (1995) The Four Faces of Social Responsibility: Boston: Ashgatepublishing.

Carroll A, B, (1979). The Pyramid of Social Responsibilities: Towards the Moral Management ofOrganization Stakeholders. Ohio: South West College Publishing.

The official website for the Etihad Airways.

Wartick, S, L, Cochran, (1985) The Evolution of Corporate Social Performance Model:Academy of management review, New York: McGraw Hill.

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African American History (African slaves)

Driven out of their native land, the first African slaves were brought to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. During this time the slaves were sold to work on land that European immigrants were colonizing on the North America Coast. During this period, millions of black slaves were dreadfully treated. The transatlantic slave trade sustained until the mid 1800s, when slavery was finally prohibited. As more blacks came to America, colonies instituted the “black code” that was meant to control and monitor the population of African Americans. As explored by Ayers, Gould, Soderlund & Oshinsky, the whites feared that if the population of blacks grew to large numbers as compared to the population of whites, then they were able to fight them (83).

The black code that had been implemented in many states indicated that a master could not release his slave under any circumstance. The blacks were forbidden from marrying from another race and were also not permitted to marry legally from their own race (Ayers et al 83). According to the whites, this was a form of controlling the increase in population of blacks which was already growing tremendously. The laws that were put in place by the whites to govern slavery were both harsh and discriminatory. Being a slave meant that the master owned the slave together with the family. The master had a right to decide whether the parents stayed with the children or whether they were sold as slaves to another master. This excess power that was exercised by the whites instilled fear in the blacks against having more children with the fear that they would either be killed or sold as slaves.

During the slavery period, both men and women were given chores. The men became drivers and others worked in plantations while the women were in charge of domestic chores. This made it a challenge for the blacks to interact and bring up children due to the amount of work given and the long working hours that were compulsory to all. In some states, as indicated in the article “The Zero Population Growth Game”, the women were required to use birth control in addition to employment of other social and physiological ways that disabled the reproduction of both men and women. The whites felt like they had to use all possible means in order to control the population of blacks.

For many slave, having their family members around was important for them to survive the harsh treatment they received fro their masters. As discussed by Ayers et al, those family members who were sold to another master often escaped in order to rejoin their families (84). This mostly happened with men unlike with women because it was not easy for them to escape accompanied by their children. Newly acquired slaves also had the tendencies to escape because they would go unnoticed as compared to those that had been working there for a long period of time.

The harsh laws implemented were later met with rebellions from the slaves who staged demonstrations, went on a go-slow and other even pretended to be sick so as to miss work. Others stole crops and tools, destroyed the farm produce while other committed arson and even murder with an aim of gaining their freedom. In states where the population of blacks out-numbered that of the whites, the riots made other slaves see that success was possible.

Works Cited

Ayers, Gould, Soderlund & Oshinsky. American Passages: A History of the Unite States. USA: Cengage Learning Inc, 2009. Print.

Innis Roy. “The Zero Population Growth Game”. Ebony. Johnson Publishing, Nov 1974178 pages Vol. 30, No. 1

African American woman in law enforcement

Institution

Student’s Name

Today, women are highly being involved in the workforce with their percentage in the workforce rising up to more than 45 percent (Keverline, 2003). They however make a slightly higher percentage than 10 percent in the law enforcement workforce an implication that they are not being involved adequately in this sector. More to this issue, most of the law enforcement employment is from the urban police departments. The small departments have even smaller number of women or no women employees at all. The worst of it all is that less than half of all the women employed in the law enforcement sector are African American women. The situation worsens even in the highly ranked positions generally for all women. The top positions in the law enforcement sector such as sergeants and lieutenants have a less representation of women (Crimianal Justice School Info, 2013). The percentage decreases with higher ranks from captain to higher ranks and positions. The only exceptional federal law enforcement department that has harmonized law enforcement positions for women and men or whites and African Americans is the FBI.

It was until the year 1970 that white men almost entirely occupied the police force in the United States. Before the same time, women, mainly white women, took only 2 percent of the entire workforce implying that white men took the other 98 percent (Martin, 2006). This is an implication that African American people were discriminated to working in the law enforcement sector until then. After the year 1970, the image of white men as being the most perfect of the law enforcement job diminished as more women came in including a mixture of various races (Martin, 2006). African American women had been completely ignored in the law enforcement sector but they were after then recognized and employed in the same sector. Apart from being recruited to work in the sector, African American women occupied almost all positions and ranks but they still face a challenge of not being represented fully. The white women take most of the positions in the higher ranks with men, especially the whites, taking the most critical positions in all departments. In some departments within the US, African American women are hardly found as part of the law enforcement workforce (Martin, 2006).

Women were first employed in the law enforcement and criminal justice departments as prison matrons. This later advanced to jail matrons and then in larger city criminal justice and law enforcement agencies. This aspect is a clear indication of a general discrimination against women (Martin, 2006). Given that at the same time discrimination against the African American people was high, African American women could hardly get a position in the law enforcement sector. The first lot of African American women to be hired in the criminal justice workplace was those who shared the same educational or elite traits as the white women (Martin, 2006). These few worked in the large cities and within the large departments. As of the year 1991, the US employment sector demanded that equitable positions had to be provided for both the whites and the African American people. In the law enforcement sector, it was demanded that for every one white man hired by a law enforcement department, the department had to hire at least one white woman, one African American man, and an African American woman (Martin, 2006). This was to reduce recrimination by gender, by culture, or by skin color.

Today women are generally facing challenges based on discrimination in the law enforcement sector. Women are seen to face challenges given that most departments may require them to pass the same physical aptitude tests as men would. This attitude was applied in the recent past but it is now changing direction that see more women join the workforce without having to pass the same test. Critics however find this as lowering the standards in the services. Once they enter the workforce, the major problem is to climb up the ladder in ranking within the same sector. A few African Americans see themselves reach the topmost seats (Keverline, 2003). Critics also exist in this case whereby the African American women expect a direct promotion to higher ranked positions without having to struggle for that. Most of them rely on the laws lately provided to impose equality in the workplace. Critics see that they have women and especially the African American have to struggle through the tough way just like the rest of the employees to gain promotions within the law enforcement sector.

The critics need to be reviewed in a better way since given the United States has high incidents of discrimination against women and the African American individuals in various aspects of life, the African American women are likely to face two kinds of discrimination. This is exactly what is happening in the law enforcement sector. The African American women are discriminated based on gender discrimination and again based on racial discrimination. This group of Americans seems to be the most highly discriminated and given the conditions surrounding them, their efforts may hardly be recognized or noticed for any promotional efforts. This issue does not only face the African American women but also other women of color in the United States (police-employment, 2012).

Within the same sector of law enforcement but outside the scope of the workforce, women of color but especially the African American women face problems emanating from law enforcement departments. Several incidents can prove the aspect of discrimination and traumatizing behavior towards these groups of women. An example of such incidents involves Malaika Brooks who was an African American woman. This woman was eight months pregnant and was shot by a police office as she went out to drop her own son off for the African American Academy, a school in Seattle (Ritchie, 2006). Another incidence of the law enforcement office against African American women is the case of a woman of Egyptian origin, Mrs. Afaf Saudi. This woman was sixty-eight years old and was a permanent US resident and citizen. She was brutally removed a certain store in Greensboro in South Carolina and forced to a police cruiser making her suffer a broken shoulder and a broken rib. This happens in November 2004 and no legal actions were taken in the case of this incidence (Ritchie, 2006).

Other incidents include an American African woman Jaisha Akins and yet a Latina woman on separate incidents. Jaisha Akins was only five years old and she was forced out of her school, St. Petersburg in Florida by a police officer. The Latina woman had her case different. A man was beating her up at her home but upon calling the police for help, she was sexually assaulted by a white police officer from Los Angelis (Ritchie, 2006). Several incidents portray the white police officers as being responsible for various assort behaviors on women of color and more on the African American women. The incidents described here indicate that the African American women do not face discrimination and assortment while in the law enforcement workforce but they also face assortment from the white law enforcing officers while acting as mare US citizens (Ritchie, 2006).

The issue of injustice on the African American woman and other women of color continues to be a major issue and problem in the US. It is claimed that many women in this category face severe police brutality but most of them hardly come to recognition due to an aspect of fear or insecurity. Little or no protection may be provided for those African American women who may decide to point out their experiences and the names or image pictures of those white people in the law enforcement workforce forcing them through some traumatized experiences (Ritchie, 2006).

The problem of police brutality on women of color, especially African American and Latino women is said to be prone to increment given that no legal action such as protection on those who point out the lawbreakers is provided on them. Most of those who face brutality fear for their lives given the same whites subjects who harass them sexually or otherwise may turn to be even worse on them. As indicated, researches show that only a few of these women could stand firm to report incidents of insult from the white law enforcement officer (DAVIS, 2005). On other aspects, the African American women in the law enforcing agencies face difficulties given that they look down upon themselves. This aspect of failing to trust their abilities and success factors is largely initiated by the fact that they feel inferior first as women in the workforce and second as African American individuals working for a great nation characterized by the white dominance (Crimianal Justice School Info, 2013). This aspect of white domination on all aspects of the US economic, social, political, and security sectors has to be terminated if all people have to feel equal. The way to stop it is the challenge since the law enforced to push for death on racial and gender discrimination is already in place. The African American women would feel superior only if they strive for that given than the US is a new country that is hardly dominated by a single race but a country that sees all races and genders and equal.

References

Crimianal Justice School Info. (2013). Women in Law Enforcement. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from Female Police Oficer: HYPERLINK “http://www.criminaljusticeschoolinfo.com/women-law-” http://www.criminaljusticeschoolinfo.com/women-law-enforcement.html

Davis, t. A. (2005). Gender inequality in law enforcement and males’ attidues and perceptions toward women working in law enforcement. Arlington: the university of texas press.

Keverline, S. A. (2003). Women in Federal Law Enforcement Percist and Excel. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from In the face of challanges: http://www.wifle.org/pdf/study_faceofchallenges.pdf

Martin. (2006). The Nature of Police Work and Women’s Entry Into Law Enforcement. Justice, 45058, No. 3 , 51-75.

police-employment. (2012). Women in Law Enforcement. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from POLICE EMPLOYMENT: http://www.policeemployment.com/resources/articles/women-law-enforcement

Ritchie, A. J. (2006). Law Enforcement Violence Against Women of Color. Color of Violence: The INCITE! Anthology Vol. 17 , 139-149.