Category: Uncategorized

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Communication Technology

In today’s world, communication has relay been revolutionized where communication technology has replaced personal contact a big deal. Communication technology refers to the use of modern day technology such as emails, cell phones and social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter to communicate. These means make life easier and more enjoyable than before because people who are in different geographical locations can be in contact. Communication technology or information communication technology (ICT) has facilitated socializing and business, as well. Facilities such as video conferencing and emailing have enabled companies and individual businesspersons to conduct business with other people despite the distance barrier. Messaging, chatting, and texting have also enabled people to communicate easily with their family and friends who reside in different locations. Communication technology, however, has its advantages and disadvantages in various ways.

Speed is one of the advantages of communication technology because messages are sent fast and instantaneous responses received. Consequently, communication has become efficient and reliable be it in business or socially. Internet has also enabled many people to have face-to-face communication across different locations through facilities such as video conferencing, Skype, and social networks. These facilities also make communication cheaper than using other means such phone calls across distances. Globalization is also another benefit of communication technology. ICT has united people and countries, and trade and business made easier thus transforming the world’s economy into an interdependent system. People can share information and ideas easily and quickly by breaking down language and geographical barriers.

ICT has also automated business and communication ventures because it is available 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. People can purchase commodities from any location in the world, and have it delivered within a short time without having to make physical travels. Cultural barriers have also been eliminated because people with different cultural backgrounds can easily communicate and trade. This also helps reduce prejudice and increase awareness of various business aspects across the globe. In addition, communication technology has facilitated education because people can learn over the internet. Students can enroll to an international school or university over the internet, and access learning materials through the e-learning platform. Employment opportunities have also been created because all one needs is internet connectivity to communicate with their employer across the globe.

Despite the hefty benefits that ICT provides, it has its downside. One major disadvantage is the loss of personal contact while communicating. People cannot read body language, facial expressions, and vocal notation. Personal contact is essential in reinforcing the message, and learning about the other person through face-to-face communication. Therefore, there is room for miscommunication since one can misunderstand the message being conveyed, or its severity. Another downside is the security risk of one’s information being hacked by fraudsters, which can contribute to loss of property and money, and tainted reputation. In addition, social networks can cause addiction, and low quality level of education because of the communication terms and codes common in these media.

It is inarguable that communication has improved communication over the years due to advances in ICT. The changes have been beneficial in facilitating communication, business, and socializing among people in different parts of the world. However, they have also come with their own share of disadvantages especially in eroding personal contact while communicating. Personal contact is an essential part of communication, and this aspect has been lost by the introduction of technological means of communication. However, this means of communication continues to become popular globally because of its benefits, which greatly outweigh the demerits.

Works Cited

Walton, Andy. Advantages & Disadvantages of Information & Communication Technology. The Houston Chronicle. 2013. Web. HYPERLINK “http://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-information-communication-technology-66948.html” http://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-information-communication-technology-66948.html

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity

In this day and age, companies must step up their game in order to remain relevant and competitive in the market. Therefore, adopting diversity into their system is an indispensable imperative that companies should embrace in order to enhance the company’s performance. Diversity in companies mainly constitutes acceptance, appreciation and recognition of staff with different backgrounds. Different sexual orientation, age, religion, race, gender, ethnicity, class, mental and physical abilities are some of the factors that create diversity at work. Employers should consider employees with diverse background during recruitment in order to improve the quality and performance of the organization in the competitive job market.

Women, colored people, people with disabilities and immigrants are normally the marginalized individuals at the workplace. Employers should see to it that everybody at work is accorded equal treatment by providing an enabling environment for creativity, productivity and teamwork for all. This is termed as diversity staffing (De’Campo web). Most employees prefer to work in an environment where diversity at all levels is encouraged. Companies should integrate the 3R’s of diversity for a company’s success, which are Retention, Results and Recruitment.

However, no matter how important this imperative is for companies, it becomes utterly difficult for most companies achieving it. This is because most organizations have the wrong perception of diversity, and they fail to incorporate all levels of diversity. One of the common mistakes that they make is to consider the visible dimension of diversity, which is mainly gender and race. This makes them to omit other forms of diversity such as disability, religion, sexual orientation, geographic background and reasoning ability. Another common mistake is diversifying the lower ranks of employment, but there is no diversity up the ladder in the management sector. In order to address this problem, organizations should include all workers in the company’s strategy, mission and vision, and acknowledge their skills and areas of knowledge for the overall excellence of the organization (Lieberman web).

Diversity has both merits and demerits. The benefits of diversity include diverse experience, where different workers have peculiar perception and experience from their various cultural backgrounds atop their individuality. Proper management of this diversity complements the workers’ weaknesses and leverages their strengths in order to enhance the impact on the workforce. Secondly, exposure to various cultures, ideas and perspectives contributes to an employee’s growth and development, encouraging them to be all-rounded. This improves their wellness and intellectual ability. Diversity also encourages retention of the human capital because employees will not have reason to seek other companies with diversity. This makes sure that heterogeneous talent is maintained because employees are not migrating from one company to the next in search of diversity. Recruitment of new staff is quite costly to firms, and could avoid it by embracing diversity. Moreover, hiring staff with multilingualism is a plus for the company because it caters for the needs of people who do not understand a certain language. This enhances communication skills within the company which may yield positive results to the company’s advantage. A heterogeneous workforce translates to greater output and productivity. There is also an increase in sales because clients’ economic, cultural and social needs are represented when buying goods and services from a diversified company.

On the contrary, diversity also has some demerits. One of the drawbacks is increased cost of training, which is incurred in pursuit of diversity during lectures, seminars and programs that promote diversity. Diversity could also provoke competition other than team work at the work place if employees do not embrace different cultures. This has an adverse effect on the business because employees work separately instead of as a team. Lack of respect for other people’s differences could arise amongst workers who prefer sticking and working within their culture. This could also lead to discrimination and prejudice (Kelly web).

The merits associated with diversity outweigh the demerits. A company cannot ignore the fact that diversity yields numerous benefits to the company, and should embrace it as a business imperative for enhanced performance and productivity. Despite the demerits, a company can forego the costs that come with diversity since it will reap the benefits in the long run. Other small demerits can be complemented with the merits, and handled amicably within the company’s means. Therefore, diversity should be part and parcel of all companies.

Works Cited

De’Campo, Martin. “Diversity Staffing: Much More Than You Think!” The Multicultural Advantage. 2009. Web. 9 April 2013.

Kelly, Lila. “Challenges in Recruiting and Hiring Diverse Employees.” The Multicultural Advantage. 2009. Web. 9 April 2013.

Lieberman, Simma. “Moving Beyond the Numbers: How to Recruit, and Retain a Diverse Workforce.” The Multicultural Advantage. 2009. Web. 9 April 2013.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expanding a Business through the use of Franchisees.

Introduction

A franchise can be described as a business agreement in which the franchiser (business owner) allows others (the franchisees) to own as well as operate a business on his/her concept and trade name. According to Tassiopoulos (2009), franchising is a proven business strategy developed by a franchisor that permits the franchisee to make use of its established trade names, propriety business strategy, and methods of carrying out business; in return for a recurring payment that involves a given percentage of gross profits or gross sales, along with a yearly fee.

The concept of franchising has over the last couple of decades expanded internationally and has now become a common entry mode for numerous establishments. According to Tassiopoulos (2009), franchising comes along with advantages and disadvantages, with the underlying advantages and disadvantages being able to be presented at a domestic and international level. This particular paper therefore seeks to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of expanding a business through the use of franchisee.

One of the biggest advantages offered as a result of expanding a business through the use of franchisees is self-funding expansion. According to Talloo (2007), a franchiser is able to expand the business rapidly without incurring much additional cost since the initial costs of creating and providing the franchise such as launch support, training, intellectual property rights, software license and site selection are normally recovered by the franchisee. Additionally, investment requirements to open each business operation, including vehicles and staff recruitment, lease, store fittings, is undertaken directly by the franchisees.

The ongoing costs of marketing, promotional activities, sales, websites, ongoing communications, providing support and managing the franchise network are also met by an ongoing management service fee provided by the franchisee, normally as percentage of the franchisee’s turnover. The only costs met by the franchisor are that of the overheads that are not met by the franchisee’s opening franchise fee (Moschandreas, 2000).Franchising as a business expansion strategy therefore requires less capital outlay compared to other business expansion strategies. Additionally, as a result of the self-funding expansion, franchisers find it easier to open multiple units, thus, gaining the competitive advantage on any prospective competitors. The multiple developments of units increase the firm’s advantage within the marketplace.

Marks & Spencer, one of the United Kingdom’s leading retailers of home products, clothing financial services and food represents an example of internationally franchising firm. Marks & Spencer opened its first store in Greece in the year 1992, working in partnership with the Marinopoulos Group, a company having business interests ranging from pharmaceuticals and supermarkets to multimedia (Marks & Spencer Company Website,2011).Marks & Spencer has now approximately 155 stores that are managed under franchise in 28 regions, mostly in Asia, Europe, Middle and the Far East, as well as stores in Hong Kong, Ireland and a United States supermarket group, King supermarkets. This has helped them exploit the potential of the Marks & Spencer brands within their local territories (Marks & Spencer Company Website, 2011).

Another advantage offered as a result of expanding a business through the use of franchisees is in terms of risk minimization. According to Li-Tzang & Kansas State University (2007), previous research has indicated that franchise arrangements arise largely out of the need to share risks. Investing in a new a business is normally risky and most studies reveal that more than 90% of new investments fail within 3 years. Franchising substantially reduces the possibilities of business risks.

As highlighted by Spencer (2010), a franchisor is able to plan for these business risks and is able to reduce their exposure through contractual stipulations such as performance standards, clauses that shift legal responsibilities to the franchisees, restrictions on the use of intellectual assets as well as reporting requirements. The franchiser is also able to use a contract form as well as its provisions not only to protect the brand, but also to protect his/her business against risks of conflict or failure in the relationship.

Moreover, franchising allows franchisers to maintain their control over profitable units with more predictable returns while shedding fairly risky locations with uncertain revenues. To a franchise business therefore, franchising, implies spreading business risks by increasing the number of locations through the franchisees’ (other people’s investments).This implies faster expansion of networks and a better opportunity to put focus on the changing market needs, which in turn means reduced effect from business competitors (Tassiopoulos,2009).

Tesco, a UK supermarket brand present an example of a firm that has employed franchising to help it minimize business risks. The supermarket opened 18 franchise stores outside the UK and has seen it and the franchisees share the cost of opening the stores as well as the subsequent profits (Fletcher, 2010).

A franchisor also accrues the benefit of rapid expansion and increased market strength bye using the investment money provided by the franchisees. As a business growth strategy, franchising enables an existing firm to rapidly expand in terms of the number of outlets for its products and services without investing excessive capital or practical managerial input (Tassiopoulos,2009). This means that the franchiser is able to have his business expand rapidly with minimal capital outlay as compared to the cost of opening up new branch offices. At the same time, the franchiser does not loose his/her control over the products, marketing and delivery as in the case of a licensed agreement. Franchising therefore gives the franchiser an easier opportunity to exploit various geographical areas that would not otherwise be within reach.

An aspect of the rapid expansion of such firms as a resulting of franchising and increase its sale is that the expanded business as a whole gains market strength. The enhanced market strength often comes with advantages, including bulk buying from various suppliers of products and services. This business expansion strategy has made it possible for giant firms like MacDonald’s and Marks & Spencer to grow rapidly, while at the same time, increasing their market strength globally. For instance, McDonald’s chain of fast food restaurants has currently more than 2000 outlets globally, with only 25% being company owned. According to Moschandreas (2000), MacDonald’s reliance on widespread franchising has been a strategy that the firm has taken on after some experimentation given the fact that the proportion of the firm-owned stores increased from 9% of the total number of stores in the year 1967 to 33% in 1976.

Expanding a business through the use of franchisees also offers operational benefit to the franchisor. Franchised firms are normally larger in terms of outlet numbers. In international operations, distance and time increases uncertainty levels due to the information gap (Whitehead, 2010). It is therefore difficult and expensive to gather as well as receive information about foreign business operations on time. In addition, cultural differences may also increase the cost of gathering information. Franchising therefore offers the franchisor with an opportunity to have a smaller central organization instead of owning locations themselves. As a result, franchisers are able to easily manage their operations even within foreign markets and with minimal investments.

Franchising also implies standardization of procedures, which reveals consistency, enhanced productivity levels in addition to better quality. As highlighted by Whitehead (2010), global franchising has proven to be a significant strategic option in the foreign expansion of UK mixed retailing businesses. It offers firms with opportunities to gain access to foreign markets within minimal investment and high returns. For Marks & Spencer, one of the United Kingdom’s leading retailers, franchising plays a pioneering role.

Another significant advantage accrued by a franchisor as a result of expanding a business through the use of franchisee is the higher return on investment. The high return on investment is normally due to the less capital employed in the business. Profits that are generated by the franchisor are normally generated on a much lower capital outlay (Tassiopoulos, 2009).

Additionally; the franchisor acquires a higher return on investment by being able to concentrate his resources in expanding his business, instead of investing on additional plants, equipment and overheads. With a franchising business arrangement, nearly all the costs are met by the franchisees. However, despite the fact that revenue collected from the franchised units is normally less than those received from the firm-owned outlets, a greater percentage of the revenue is profit (Tassiopoulos,2009).

This business expansion strategy has made it possible for giant firms like MacDonald’s and Marks & Spencer to grow rapidly and increasing their market strength globally. As a result, they have benefited much from the higher return on investment that comes with expanding their businesses through the use of franchisees.

Expanding a business through the use of franchisees also involves a number of disadvantages. One of the most significant disadvantages that come with this business growth strategy is in terms of sales. Talloo (2007) highlights that all franchise firms are normally sales-driven at the start; as a result, this implies that one has to have a very effective franchise marketing programme with very resourceful sales people.

Franchise sales effort can be affected by a number of variables including interest rates, the state of the national economy, competition, the willingness of banks to provide loans for the franchise, etc (Talloo, 2007).Therefore, in franchising arrangements, if a business is not growing, then it is dying. A franchiser must therefore ensure the franchise business has the franchise income fee so to enable the franchise stay in business until there is a sufficient amount of royalty income to attain the monthly break-even.

Conflicts involving the franchisee and the franchisers are almost unavoidable and forms one of the biggest disadvantages of expanding a business through franchising. However, worst still are the lawsuits that come with the conflicts. According to Talloo (2007), things are always fine with the franchisees only when they are making money, but if they are making losses, conflicts between the franchisers and franchisees always arise and if not dealt with well, it may end up in the law courts with the franchisor being indicted of everything from misrepresentation, providing inadequate training and fraud (Talloo, 2007).

Usually if the case ends up in a law court, the franchisor will most likely lose since the legal system has a very uneven playing field for the franchiser in terms of legal proceedings. The best way to avoid such conflicts is for the franchiser to offer his/her franchisee the best support as possible and make them successful.

A significant example of a conflict involving a franchisor and franchisee occurred between Burger King, an international fast food chain and its Israel franchisee. This was due to a violation of contract dispute. The case drew out reactions from members of the Arab League and the Islamic nations who made a threat to the company for legal injunction including revocation of the firm’s business licenses within the member nation’s territories (BBC News, 1999).

Managing growth within a franchise business forms another significant negative as the problem of managing can always prove to be fatal. As highlighted by Talloo (2007), franchising as business expansion strategy is a very efficient way of rapidly expanding a business, because the strategy has very few limits that inhibit growth. However, managing growth in a franchise business is not always easy. Firstly, the franchisor has often no direct, hierarchical control over his franchisee. Moreover; the franchisee is usually an independent contractor, and not an employee. As a result, the franchisor is able to damage the overall reputation of the franchise if they do not adhere to the firm standards.

Management within a franchise system is therefore more complex when compared to a truly uniform as well as a hierarchically managed system of a firm-owned unit. Great effort and resources are therefore needed to ensure the franchisees are successful. Burger King, an international fast food chain restaurant presents an example of a franchising firm that has suffered due to management problems that involved a lack of effective control over its franchisees. However; it was only after Pillsbury’s management hired an assertive executive from McDonald’s that the firm began to exercise effective control over its franchisees (Burger King Corporation,2011).

Conclusion

From the above analysis, what is evident is that, just like any other business growth strategy; business expansion through the use of franchisee has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of expanding a business using this strategy include benefits in terms of self-funding expansion, risk minimization, rapid expansion and increased market strength, higher return on investment and operational benefits. On the other hand, the disadvantages of this business strategy include Conflicts between the franchisee and the franchisers and negative effects that may effect on sales. However, what is evident is that expanding a business through use of franchising has a lot of advantages, therefore forms a good strategy of expanding a business.

References

BBC News, 1999,”Middle East Protest Grows against Burger Giant”.

Burger King Corporation, 2011, Company Histories & Profiles.

Fletcher, R, 2010, Tesco takes Franchise Route in Overseas Push, Retrieved on December from HYPERLINK “http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/7998407/Tesco-takes-franchise-route-in-overseas-push.html”http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/7998407/Tesco-takes-franchise-route-in-overseas-push.html

Li-Tzang, J.H & Kansas State University, 2007, The Franchise Decision and Financial Performance: An Examination Of Restaurant Firms, ProQuest.

Moschandreas, M, 2000, Business Economics, Cengage Learning EMEA.

Marks & Spencer Company Website

Talloo, 2007, Business Organization and Management, Tata McGraw-Hill Education.

HYPERLINK “http://www.emeraldinsight.com/search.htm?ct=all&st1=Maureen+Whitehead&fd1=aut” o “Author search for Maureen Whitehead.”Whitehead, M, 2010, International Franchising – Marks & Spencer: A Case Study, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 19 Issue: 2MCB UP Ltd.

Spencer, E.C, 2010, The Regulation of Franchising in the New Global Economy, Edward Elgar Publishing.

Tassiopoulos, D, 2009, New Tourism Ventures: An Entrepreneurial and Managerial Approach, Juta and Company Ltd.

Advantages and disadvantages of franchising The primary advantages of franchising from the perspective of the franchisee are the provision of a recognizable consumer brand, tested product and service concepts, technical assistance in the areas of site selection, facility construction and interior design, training, marketing support, and financial controls. Franchisors often assist franchisee applicants in obtaining financing and/or lease agreements. Although all business models encompass a certain amount of risk, proven franchise concepts experience a considerably reduced level of failure. Given the extent of this support, even individuals without extensive experience in the hospitality industry can often acquire and successfully manage a franchise business. The primary disadvantages of franchising from the perspective of the franchisee are that the franchisee must pay a royalty fee and must comply with vigorous quality and control procedures established by the franchisor. Conflict may arise between the franchisee and franchisor when territorial exclusivity is breached or when trademark issues or renewal rights are disputed. The primary advantages of franchising from the perspective of the franchisor are that it enables a company to establish a large number of outlets in a relatively short period of time. In addition, although the franchisor provides the business concept, it is the franchisee that is required to obtain financing to pay for the land, physical facility, inventory and working capital. The franchisor’s costs are primarily related to administrative and support expenses, such as pre-opening assistance, training, and quality control. Franchise companies are therefore leveraged to a lesser degree and are less vulnerable to cyclical fluctuations. The primary disadvantages of franchising from the perspective of the franchisor are that, as its system grows, it is difficult to maintain high standards and effective communication with its franchisees. In addition, national and international growth often requires adaptation of the franchise system to local tastes and cultures.



Groupware

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Groupware

Groupware is a program which assists people to collectively work together, while they are actually located at different places. It means that it gives people who are far away from one another an opportunity to work on a similar project regardless of their physical locations (Wilson, 2001).

Advantages

Groupware is preferred because of the following merits:

It provides structures which enable members to view the purpose, goals and set up schedules. This gives them a chance to acquire information, compare notes and exchange ideas.

It fosters creativity amongst the users. This enables members to come up with different ideas which can then be used to improve the project they work on.

It helps to facilitate communication amongst all the involved members. This can be achieved through the use of messages and chats. Through such means of communication, the members can discuss certain issues before coming to an agreed conclusion.

Disadvantages

The operations of this program have been considered ineffective because of the following demerits:

It is costly. Buying the materials and maintaining the groupware is always challenging, because it requires a lot of money to purchase and effectively maintain them. This explains why many organizations usually decide to use other software to manage such programs (Wilson, 2001).

It is an unreliable program because it depends on one server. When the Internet is down, the server can not allow anyone to use the program.

It does not allow the use of non-verbal communication amongst the users. This poses a very great challenge to the organization since this form of communication is always preferred to others. It is simple and easy to use by all the stakeholders.

It promotes overdependence on a particular groupware provider. Because of the logistical and security issues involved, it is appropriate for the user to only rely on one vender of the production, transportation and installation of the program.

References

Wilson, P. (2001). Computer Supported Cooperative Work: An Introduction. Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Advance Directive and ANA Code of Ethics

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Institution

An advance directive describes a document through which an individual makes a provision for health care decisions in case, in the future, the individual becomes incapacitated in making a decision regarding his treatment wishes. The advance directive constitutes the durable power of attorney for health and the living will (Guinn, 2008). A living will tells the type of treatment that an individual desires in case he is permanently unconscious or dying; an individual can refuse or accept medical care depending on his wishes as spelt in the living will. On the other hand, the durable power of attorney for health care is an advance directive that gives an individual’s health care proxy. The advance directive is a vital document since it serves the function of permitting an individual to make his health care choices, in the future. Without the advance directive, an individual will not have the capacity of expressing his health care desires to be pursued in the future, when he is not capable of making the health care decision (Guinn, 2008).

In carrying out health care practices, nurses need to follow the code of ethics. The code of ethics provides an outline of the rules, values, responsibilities and duties that nurses must follow in giving quality health care to individuals. The American Nurses association code of ethics outlines such guidelines and responsibilities that nurses need to adhere to in order to ensure ethical standards are followed in the provision of health care services. Therefore, the chief purpose of American Nurses Association code of ethics is to provide ethical standards that nurses should follow in order to ensure that they provide quality health care services to individuals. It provides the nurse with a guideline of what to do and what not to, when providing health care services. In addition, the American Nurses association code of ethics serves the purpose of aiding nurses in making ethical decisions, when providing health care services (Masters, 2013).

A nurse is trained to professionally handle patients under the guidance of the code of ethics. Through the American Nurses Association code of ethics, a nurse is capable of providing health care services to individuals through making the best ethical decision (Council of Europe, 2011). In case, a person does not have a living will or even a power of attorney for health, the nurse providing medical services to such an individual will follow the American Nurses Association code of ethics in providing treatment to the individual. The American Nurses Association code of ethics provides that a nurse must always intend to serve the good to others in order to impact the health lives of others positively. Because of this provision, the nurse will make the best ethical decision regarding the treatment of the individual, who does not have a living will or a power of attorney for health.

Besides, the American Nurses Association code of ethics provides that the primary commitment of a nurse is to a patient (Masters, 2013). Therefore, a nurse will always be committed to a patient. In case, an individual is in a coma but does not possess a power of attorney for health or a living will, a nurse is going to use this provision in providing the best health care service to the individual; the nurse will become committed to the patient in ensuring that the decision that he makes will be for the benefit of the patient.

References

Guinn, K. (2008). Physicians’ Perspectives on Discussing Patient Advance Directives. New York: ProQuest.

Council of Europe. (2011). Principles concerning continuing powers of attorney and advance directives for incapacity: Recommendation CM/Rec (2009)11 adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 9 December 2009 and explanatory memorandum. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

Masters, K. (2013). Role development in professional nursing practice. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Homeschooling

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(Institutional Affiliation)

Abstract

Homeschooling is becoming a popular trend among many families today. Essentially, the idea of homeschooling has generated numerous debates regarding the benefits and detriments of this form of education to students. Providentially, neither the advantages nor the disadvantages surpass one another, and for that reason, individuals have the ability to choose this form of education based on their needs and requirements. However, parents and instructors should use a cautious approach to this form of education to promote proper growth and development in students.

Key Words: Homeschooling, Advantages, Disadvantages

Introduction

Also referred to as home based learning, homeschooling refers to the education offered to students in their own homes. In essence, this form of education can be carried out under the administration of correspondence schools, which provide the curriculum to be followed by tutors when educating the student (Lines, 2000). However, instructors can opt to design their own curriculum for the students, which is in most cases, illegal and detrimental to the student. Accordingly, successful homeschooling occurs through the use of a set instructional curriculum, but with additional themes fashioned for the student (Stevens, 2001). As a form of education, homeschooling is offered as an alternative to public and private schooling. Evidently, homeschooling is also the preferred option for families who live in rural areas or families with children with an active career outside the school setting. Normally, it is the best option for young entertainers and athletes. In the home based school setting, the parent may opt to be their child’s tutor, or he or she can choose to hire a professional tutor to provide the necessary education for the child. Unknown to many, homeschooling is permissible in most states, with research studies indicating that over 1million children in America at present receive home based education (Bauman, 2002). There are various motivations towards homeschooling, ranging from increased performance by children, to evading the diminishing public education system. Homeschooling is both about guidance and novice. This means that, the tutor is tasked with the responsibility to ensure that the child receive the relevant education necessary for their growth and development. With homeschooling, the tutor gives undivided attention to the child, thus, increasing knowledge of the child’s strengths and weaknesses.

This paper explores the subject of homeschooling, explaining the different motivations for homeschooling. Fundamentally, the paper draws attention to the advantages and disadvantages of this type of educational system.

Homeschooling

Often distinguished as the highest level of education privatization, homeschooling is increasingly becoming common for most families in society today. In 2003, The National Household Education Survey program (NHES) presented a report illustrating that over 1,508,050 students in America were receiving home based education (Ray, 2003). This was a 0.7% increase from 2001, illustrating the rate at which this form of education is accepted in the society. Initially, homeschooling began as an option for early childhood education, and was focused on providing education that is physically and mentally relevant for the growth and development of the students. Before this form of education became popular, most critics believed that this form of education was harmful to students both socially, mentally, and physically. However, the improved performance of homeschooled students compelled more parents, as well as, educators into using this method of education for students. In essence, parents and students have several inspirations towards this form of education.

Researchers identify five main reasons why parents are drawn to homeschooling, including reduced costs of private education, personality development, poor public school systems, and personal preferences (Bauman, 2002). Most parents feel that homeschooling presents a more individualized form of education, which is necessary to understand the level of understanding by the student. Understanding the level of understanding by a student is essential for the comprehension of the student, mental development. Not all students are fast learners and homeschooling helps theses students to learn at their own pace without feeling rushed. Individualized education also allows for improved character development, which is essential for the growth, and development of the student. This is especially so since the current society is characterized by corruption of morals that does more harm than good for society. Research also illustrates that the current education system has been severely damaged as it fosters an array of vices ranging from student bullying to crime and substance abuse. Parents fear that instead of providing the necessary education for their children, the public system of education may destroy their children in terms of psychological development (Bauman, 2002). Lastly, since parents have shunned the option of public education, some are tempted to enroll their children in private schools, which will cost them an insurmountable amount of money. Most parents cannot afford to pay for private education for their children, making homeschooling, the better option for their children.

Advantages of Homeschooling

Supporters of home based education have identified various advantages of homeschooling over other forms of education. Though most of the advantages presented are conceptual, the data collected from the actual practice of this form of education prove what is otherwise theoretical. Put simply, the advantages of homeschooling are both theoretical and observable, thus, explaining why most parents opt for this form of education for their children (Belfield & Henry, 2005). Research studies on the subject matter agree to five advantages of homeschooling including better tutor-student relationships, enhanced curriculum flexibility, reduced negative exposure, and the promotion of family relations.

Better Tutor-Student Relationships

When one thinks of the school as a centralized institution of learning, one cannot go without associating the school setting with large numbers of students who are interested in attaining an education (Belfield & Henry, 2005). Education is meant for all individuals irrespective of their age, culture, or gender. For that reason, everyone is entitled to receiving an education to enhance individual participation in society. The archetypal classroom environment is characterized by large numbers of students with one tutor for each subject taught (Lines, 2000). In this conventional setting, tutors and instructors are forced to divide their attention towards each student meaning that a student can only receive a fraction of the teacher’s attention. Though this has successfully been implemented to enhance student education and knowledge, the conventional classroom setting fosters partiality based on student participation in the class. Students who are more active in classrooms are more likely to receive more attention from the educators, putting the inactive students at a disadvantage over them. Sequentially, students who are dormant in class, for various reasons, may not receive proper education as their tutors constantly ignore them. Essentially, home-schooled children receive the complete attention from their tutors and educators (Belfield & Henry, 2005). This attention also promotes student participation, which is necessary for the promotion of physical and mental development in the student. The tutor, in this case provides personal education services, thus increasing understanding by the student concerning the subject being taught. With homeschooling, students do not feel left out or ignored by their tutors, which can, in turn, motivate them to learn.

Enhanced Curriculum flexibility

One observable characteristic of homeschooling is its elasticity both in terms of time and schedule, as well as, in terms of curriculum design. The regular education curriculum used in schools and educational institutions is designed in a way that it is used by all didactic institutions. Depending on the system of education, all schools share one principal curriculum, which is applied by educators during their course of teaching (Bauman, 2002). School curriculums are collectively designed owing to the diverse nature of the school as an institution. In most cases, schools are presented with diverse groups of student with different backgrounds, as well as, talent. Egalitarianism is the core element of the education system, and for that reason, all students are expected to receive the same quantity of education irrespective of their regions of origin. The large numbers of students attending schools my limit the contents of the curriculum as it may demand extra financial resources to make certain that all students receive the perfect education (Lines, 2000). Homeschooling, however, limits the number of students in the classroom, hence, increasing flexibility of the curriculum. Tutors can design specified curriculums that are aimed at ensuring the student receives superior quality education. Put simply, tutors can use explicit needs and capacities of the student to design a curriculum that best promotes physical and mental growth.

Reduced Negative Exposure

Observably, homeschooling is characterized by a level of privatization in the provision of education for students. This means that, home-schooled students do not engage in sufficient social interaction as their counterparts in public and private schools. This privatization may be an advantage to students, in that, it reduces the negative exposures typified by other forms of education. At the outset, public education promotes objectionable forms of competition between students. Competition can be both socially or institutionally induced including, talent competitions, or economic rivalry among students among other things (Bauman, 2002). Most of these competitions are not focused on education, making it hard for students to give full attention to their studies. Students find themselves in situations whereby achieving stature in school is more beneficial than receiving an education, which is detrimental for their mental growth and development. In effect, homeschooling permits students to focus on learning.

Promotion of Family Relations

Unlike public schooling, which places students amid varieties of cultures with different values and beliefs, homeschooling limits the promotion of beliefs and values within the family setting. Most socialists hold the belief that the family should be responsible for instilling core values and principles in their children (Belfield & Henry, 2005). In essence, homeschooling facilitate this, as the main contact with the child in such a setting is the family. With homeschooling, parents can dictate what is taught to their children, in that, they can fashion the curriculum in support of their beliefs. For example, religions families can use the curriculum to provide more religious teachings for the students, which may not be provided in public schools. Students can also be taught on specific cultures pertinent to the culture the student’s family.

Disadvantages of Homeschooling

Notably, the majority of disadvantages associated with homeschooling correspond to the perceived advantages of this form of education (Cooper, 2005). What is proposed as an advantage of this form of education also functions as a disadvantage of the same form of education. For example, promoting the family may lead to deficient community participation, which can also be detrimental to the child. Critics of this form of education identify four central disadvantages of homeschooling, all of which are consequences of privatization. These disadvantages include veiled costs, deficient community participation, reduced social services, and inadequate quality control.

Veiled Costs

Most parents hold the belief that homeschooling is a much cheaper option to enrolling a child in a private school. However, this belief is unfounded, especially if one considers the hidden costs associated with homeschooling. Homeschooling is more expensive than both public and private schooling as it demands that the family absorb the entire cost associated with their child’s education (Evans, 2003). Put simply, homeschooling forces parents to provide materials and equipment, including basic reading materials and technology if these are not being provided by umbrella schools. Paying for both the tuition fee and the purchase of education materials can be an expensive venture, not unless, the parent opts to assume the role of the tutor. On the other hand, taking up the role of tutor may also be expensive in that it requires the parent to invest plenty of time and money to receive instructional training to facilitate student learning. The veiled costs of homeschooling make this form of education financially demanding, and can only be attainable by families with extra money to fund their child’s education.

Deficient Community Participation

As previously mentioned, the most notable characteristic of homeschooling is its privatization, as well as, the fact that education in this setting takes place in the home. Learning from home implies that the student will have limited exposure to the outside community because the student will be isolated from his peers. Though this isolation may be necessary to reduce negative social exposure, it limits social learning and citizenship ideals. This means that, home-schooled students are likely to display individualized values, most of which are not coherent when applied in the social setting (Stevens, 2001).

Reduced Social Services

Concurrent with reduced community participation, homeschooling also reduces, if not diminishes the social service system. Public schools are not only recognized for the provision of educative services Lost Social Services (Evans, 2003). Homeschooling diminishes the provision of such services because the parents, as well as, the students eventually lack the resources needed to provide social services.

Inadequate Quality Control

In education, quality control refers to the regulation of what is taught in the school curriculum. Inadequacy, in this case, would therefore mean the inability to control the quality of education offered to students. Homeschooling does not necessarily imply probable incompetence in the delivery of instruction, but the likelihood of such an occurrence is high. For example, tutors who choose to design their own curriculums may fail to incorporate the basic principles of education, making it hard for the student to receive relevant education.

Conclusion

The popularity of home based education, otherwise known as homeschooling continues to grow in most developing nations today. This form of education has both advantages and disadvantages, none of which is greater than the other. When deciding on homeschooling as the preferred options for their children, parents should take into consideration the possible impacts of this form of education to ensure that it is put into the best practice. Parents, as well as, tutors have the option of fashioning the homeschooling curriculum to achieve both physical and mental growth and development in students. When properly put into practice, homeschooling, not only facilitates physical and mental development, it also improves student performance.

References

Bauman, K. J. (2002). Homeschooling in the United States: Trends and Characteristics.

Retrieved from: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n26.html

Belfield, C. R. & Henry M. L. (2005). Privatizing Education Choice: Consequences for

Parents, Schools and Public Policy. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.

Cooper, B., ed. (2005). Home Schooling in Full View:AReader. Greenwich, CT: Information

Age Publishing.

Evans, Dennis L. (2003). “Home is No Place for School.”USA Today. Retrieved from:

http://www.usatoday.com/home-is-no-place-for-school/context.html

Lines, P. M. (2000). “When Home Schoolers Go to School: A Partnership Between Families

and Schools.” Peabody Journal of Education 75 (1-2): 159-86.

Ray, B. D. (2003). “Facts on Homeschooling.” National Home Education Research Institute.

Retrieved from: http://www.nheri.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=174&Itemid=51

Stevens, M. L. 2001. Kingdom of Children. Culture and Controversy in the Home- Schooling

Movement. Princeton University Press: Princeton.

Advanced Accounting: Advanced Tax Research and Jurisprudence

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Ethics refers to conduct and how it can have a positive impact. Most times, the news focuses on issues that affect accountants. Accountants are being accused that they are not following the established codes of ethics (Dayson, 2010). Controllers, Chief accounting officers and Chief financial officers are the ones most likely to commit acts, which are unethical. In the United States, tax returns are filled by around 135 million people. More than half of this population obtains assistance from tax accountants. There are people, who might not want to pay and others want to pay it at an extremely low price. In turn, tax accountants are faced with challenges, which threaten their morality as well as ethics (Dayson, 2010).

This paper seeks to give an analysis of issues on Ethics, Morality and Legality in tax accounting. Also, it seeks to investigate the view provided by the scriptures in the Bible concerning matters related to tax.

Keywords: Tax, Ethical, Moral, Legal, Accounting

Issues involved in Tax Accounting

The case study is about tax accountants, who are often pressurized, to engage in acts considered to be immoral, unethical as well as illegal. Clients try and attempt to evade paying taxes or even trying to pay the least amount of tax. Accountants should be able to make decisions, which are morally accepted. This means that they should distinguish between what is bad and that which is right. Perfection standards should be followed when making decisions, which are unethical. The tax accountant should know about the implications of him committing the act. They should ensure that assessment of the situation at hand occurs (AICPA Professional Standards). This means that they should evaluate the impact of the act, which they are about to commit. Parties involved, should be thought off before any decisions are made. The results of the act should be compared as well as the responsibility involved. The tax accountant should make good judgment concerning this situation.

The Christian Bible (2011), KJV, has a lot of information regarding matters related to taxes. The book written by Mathew, in chapter 17 verses twenty four to twenty seven, provides information regarding taxes. Taxes were paid, even by Jesus and this means no one else has a right not to do so. It was during an incident at Capernaum that the matter on taxes was known. According to Jesus, any human being should be able to pay taxes. Those who do not, or try to evade it are committing a sin. Also, in the twenty second chapter of the same book, Jesus gave his sentiments concerning taxes. Some Pharisees wanted to trap Jesus, when they were asking if it is right to pay taxes. They wanted to know if paying taxes to Caesar was right or not. Jesus wanted people to pay taxes to whoever was in charge of providing money to them. This means that people should pay their taxes to the government as it is their obligation. Furthermore, those who do not pay taxes are meant to be punished by the existing authority. This is because they are evading their responsibilities, while other people suffer at their expense. The book of Romans also gives views that Paul gave concerning tax payment. People, who are moral, should be influenced by their conscience to pay taxes. Retribution exists for those who evade tax payment. God has given responsibility to authorities, thus it is mandatory to adhere to its set rules. Even if a person is not a Christian, they should know that it is required that they pay taxes. It is not fair for people to enjoy services provided by the government and they do not contribute anything towards it.

Tax accountants should be well trained, to face problems relating to their work. Integrity must be present while working. This means that they should not accept any form of gift, which might be presented to them. This is because they risk their career being sabotaged and later on, might lose their jobs. The policies, which exist in the organization, should be followed (Burton, 1972). In turn, it will be easy to solve the matter in a legal manner. One can chose to advise the client on the negative impact of what the client is requesting. The client should be aware of the implications of their intentions. If this fails, then more action needs to be taken, to ensure that the client does not commit this act in another firm. The tax accountant’s seniors should be made aware of what is taking place (Burton, 1972). They will then decide the best action to solve the matter. For example, they can sue the client whereby, the matter will be solved in court. This method is tough, but the results are rewarding. People who refuse to pay their taxes should be ashamed, so that they will think twice, in case they do not want to pay their taxes. Those who want to pay low taxes and want tax accountants to help them are committing a crime known as corruption. Corruption is crime, which carries a punishment that is extremely serious. Tax accountants have an ethics and conduct code, which they should follow. Those who violate the ethics code should be punished accordingly due to the crime that has been committed by them. Often, it might lead to loss of clients but one should be happy that they have made a decision, which is morally accepted. In conclusion, ethics is a vital issue, which should be addressed well by tax accountants. People should know that it is mandatory to pay taxes to any existing government (Accounting and Auditing Enforcement Release). Taxes, which people pay, are used by various governments to come up with projects that will benefit its citizens. People are in need of services of high quality in the sectors of health, education, among others. If they do not pay taxes, they should not expect to benefit from such services. This is the reason why tax accountants as well as their clients, should not become involved in unethical practices, concerning tax issues.

References

Accounting and Auditing Enforcement Release No. 923

AICPA Professional Standards, vol. 1, “U.S. Auditing Standards,” sec. 316

Bible. (2011). King James Version. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Burton, John. (1972) .Corporate Financial Reporting: Ethical and Other Problems .New York: AICPA. 7, 51–52.

Dayson, J. (2010). Accounting for Non-Accountants. London: Pitman.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Restaurants

According to the article History of Restaurants the restaurant as we know it today is necessary which would make one think it has been here for a long time. However, the restaurant as is known today is something that has recently developed. This is not t say that there were no restaurants several decades ago. Commercial eating places were available, but the choice of menu was not was not offered. Most commercial eating places prepared only one type of dish. The food was served but was not eaten at the restaurant and there were specific times at which the food was served. The commercial eating places were meant for travellers who bought the food as they proceeded with their journey. The first restaurant was in France that belonged to Boulanger a soup vendor who opened a shop where he served his customers a variety of dishes. The term “restaurant” first originated from France which meant “restorative” which referred to soup and hot broth available inside. This term was then adopted by many other countries to refer to an eating place offering a variety of foods and drinks. Restaurants have become a part of any community in the world, but these restaurants have some advantages and disadvantages.

The Enzine Article Experience the Joy of Eating at a Restaurant shows that many restaurants offer a wide variety of cuisines providing well cooked meals as well as an ambient environment. Restaurants are a great place for people who are unable to cook at home to come and enjoy a cooked meal. Most restaurants take pride in their level of cleanliness and one can either choose to eat the meal at the restaurant or take the food and it at your convenience in another location. Most people who prefer to eat out do not just do so because of the food; it is because this way, they can get to interact with different people. Restaurants are also a great place to have events reducing he burden of cooking at home.

The development of tourism in an area is coupled to the number of restaurants and the services provided by the restaurants in a certain area. According to Satish countries like India are using this strategy to promote tourism (61). Most restaurants in India not only offer the tourists great food, but they also offer accommodation facilities, transport facilities, entertainment, shopping facilities and consultancy services. By provision of these services, the restaurant business has played a key role in the promotion of tourism in India and other countries.

The greatest advantage about eating in a restaurant is that one gets to eat a wide range of international dishes. There are many restaurant offering cuisines from different places like Chinese restaurants serving Chinese cuisines, Italian restaurants and Indian restaurants serving cuisines from those regions (Experience the Joy of Eating at a Restaurant). Depending on ones mood, you can go to a restaurant serving your meal of choice without necessarily making the dish or visiting another country to try the dish. Eating in a restaurant serving international cuisines gives the people an opportunity to exchange the customs and traditions of international foods as well as learning more about international foods. The locals are also given an opportunity to develop a local dish that can be enjoyed by people in that region as well as people from other parts of the world.

Different restaurants serve different types of foods. Some serve organic foods and foods for diabetics while other serves fast foods that are easy to prepare and can be eaten in the restaurant or can be eaten when one is on the move. Depending on ones mood one can enjoy different foods that one is unable to prepare at home. Eating at home has always been termed as healthy by many who are against eating in a restaurant.

Fast food restaurants are found in many countries in the world. The fact that people are always in a rush has changed the eating habits of many people making them results to fast foods that are cheap and easy to prepare (Schlosser 6). The food can also be eaten at the restaurant or on the move making it convenient for many. This has led to the growth of fast foods selling fast foods with McDonald restaurants dominating the market in the United States and other parts of the world.

The main advantages of eating fast foods are that customers are served in time and are a preference for many busy businessmen and students. Customers are quickly served so that they can have time to do other things instead of waiting for food to be prepared in a restaurant or cooking at home. In addition, preparing food at home means that one will take time to buy the food in a supermarket cook the food the later wash the dishes. The process takes a longer time and is not convenient for those wishing to save as much time as possible.

The disadvantage of eating fast foods is that it can badly affect ones health. It is important to eat fast foods in moderation because most of them contain a lot of alt, calories and fat. Obesity is a health problem in many children and adults and can be linked to a frequent eating of fast foods. A research done in the United States showed that those who lived close to a fast food restaurant were at a risk of suffering from diseases like stroke that are cause by fats and other ingredients in fast foods that have a high percentage of calories. The tradition of eating fast foods is affecting family’s mealtimes because teenagers and other young people prefer having fast foods with their peers. Family mealtime that is considered the time when the family talks about their daily activities is slowly becoming a thing of the past (Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Foods).

Restaurants charge a lot of money for their meals and drink especially those serving international cuisines. Eating healthy food in a restaurant is also very expensive and the value goes up for a larger number of people. Cooking at home for a large number of people is cheaper than eating at a restaurant.

According to the article New York Crisis’ Affects on NYC Restaurants and Bankruptcy Options restaurants face a significant drop in business following a financial crisis. They pay high rent and are also faced with expenses of insurance and salaries for a large number of employees. Most restaurants file fro bankruptcy when faced with a financial crisis and are unable to redeem themselves. With the economic recession, most people opt to cook at home which is much cheaper than eating at a restaurant, this way, many restaurants have been put out of business and are unable to survive in the harsh economic melt down.

In conclusion, the restaurant industry has developed and restaurants can be found all over the world. They are convenient because they provide a variety of foods and food is served fast. Restaurants are a good place to have a function and they provide an ambience that is attracting to many people. International cuisines are also served at restaurants making it possible for one to learn the culture and foods of a particular region.

The disadvantage is that most foods served in a restaurant are expensive and are not healthy especially those served at fast food restaurants. Restaurants are also at a risk of going bankrupt when faced with a financial crisis.

Works Cited

Stephen, Starr. New York Financial Crisis’ Affect on NYC Restaurants and Bankruptcy Options. New York Bankruptcy Lawyer Blog. October 11, 2008.

History of Restaurants. Big Site of Amazing Facts. Retrieved February 19, 2011 from HYPERLINK “http://www.bigsiteofamazingfacts.com/history-of-restaurants” http://www.bigsiteofamazingfacts.com/history-of-restaurants

Miecevole, Sintilia. Experience the Joy of Eating at a Restaurant. Ezine Articles. June 29, 2006.

Satish, Babu. Tourism Development in India: A Case Study. New Delhi: APH Publishing, 2008.

Schlosser, Erick. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001.

Brown, Jim. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Food. Artipot. March 24, 2009.

Advanced Ethics: End of Life Issue Topic

Justice: Allocation of Resources for the Terminally Ill in ICU Settings

Justice within the health care setting is a matter that requires a sensitive approach due to the intricacy with which decisions made by health care professionals and administrators have on the life of the patients. Among the most striking applications of justice within the healthcare setting is the allocation of resources of particularly for the terminally ill patients. On one hand, it is important to acknowledge the fact that the resources to save life, just as it is with most other vital resources in life, are limited in supply within a backdrop of an almost ever increasing demand. Justice as an ethical duty for the health care profession facilitates the making of the difficult decision on which individuals on the terminal illness patients’ list gets the allocation. As such, a clear ethical consideration basis must be formulated and followed to the latter to ensure that the most deserving patients are served by the profession on the merit of the appropriate considerations of making the waiting list.

To justify the importance of this topic to the health care industry, it is perhaps important to highlight the most critical areas of application of justice characterized by the allocation of organs for transplant. According to the healthcare professional ethics, justice should be employed in the allocation of transplant organs to the terminally ill patients based on a number of considerations (Giuliano, 1997). However, the following of the outlined code of the allocation has been a problem with cases of organ smuggling and buying cartels being reported in many instances. Alternatively, it is suspicious how celebrities and other high ranking members of the society climb up the waiting list in the allocation of organs.

As an illustration of the complexity of the distribution of transplant resources such as vital organs, there is a landmark episode in the American health care ethics history represented by contentious allocation of liver transplant to Todd Krampitz. In ethical considerations of the case, it is reported that Mr. Krampitz’s liver was fast deteriorating having suffered from a large tumor and waited for a well wisher to donate the organ. Krampitz and his family decided to design huge signboards, newspapers and television notices appealing for well wishers who would donate the organ to him. Eventually, a family emerged having lost a member to an accident and decided to donate the liver to Krampitz eventually saving his life through the transplant. Despite the ethical considerations binding doctors in the organ allocation system, his doctor went on to overlook the system where over 17,000 patients had been lined up ahead of him on the waiting list (Caplan, 2004).

As an ethical profession, it fails to be depicted in the case in the conduct of the doctor for circumventing the justice system of allocation of organs which are increasingly a rare resource against the rising number of patients in need of transplant. It has also been reported that politicians and superstars have severally been involved in arm-twisting the administrators of the system to allow them to be slotted ahead of other deserving patients on the waiting list. According to McCarrick (1995), the number of patients in need of organ transplants has steadily increased annually by about 20 per cent against an almost similar number of organ donors. To ensure that justice in the allocation of organs is adhered to, professional ethics needs to rise up to the occasion on an equitable basis. Treating every individual in need of an organ transplant will only be conducted in a just way if professionalism stands above the status considerations.

Just allocation of resources among the terminally ill patients has been a problem in many countries for a long time, with cases of an organ black market existing. As an illustration, it is reported that China had one of the most notorious illegal trade of organs where involuntary harvesting of organs from disadvantaged persons was going on for a while (Menikoff, 1999). Ethical acknowledgment of the need for justice in the healthcare profession particularly in taking care of the terminally ill patients is a milestone in the profession. However, adherence presents the biggest hurdle to the profession and enthusiasm observed in compliance to other professionalism duties and codes must be replicated on this end. While terminally ill persons may not actively take part in soliciting or even forcibly acquiring organs, influencing the system of organ allocation is a major setback to resource allocation in a just way.

Childress (1996) reckons that it is not enough to hold ethical opinion if application of the appropriate systems of allocation of resources such as organs cannot be followed. To this end, it is important to consider other channels of implementing ethical systems for instance by departing from the traditional principles altruism in dealing with organ allocation. Under altruism ethics, morality calls bind professionals to act in a manner that will ensure helping and benefiting others beyond their individual interests. Bearing in mind that most ethical codes of conduct in health care pay unmatched attention to altruism, it follows that the logic of circumventing the system would not hurt the professionals for having assisted someone in the end.

According to Krom (2005), it is perhaps time to make a departure from altruistic approaches in dealing with justice in allocation of resources to terminally ill persons and employing mutually assured assistance. In view of the author’s perspective, resource allocation would be better if the waiting list criteria are made with a more charity based approach across the donors and receivers. A different approach is argued by Menikoff (1999) who proposes a working organ swapping basis for the allocation of resources to work. The author argues that there is need for the receiver to avail an organ from his relatives to assist someone else on the waiting list and reduce the large numbers of people with organ needs. Organ swapping as recommended by Menikoff (1999) seems more logical than many other justice based organ allocation systems which can easily be circumvented exposing them to injustice.

In my view, it is very important for resource allocation systems for terminally ill patients to consider justice implications in advance of their implementation. While acknowledgment of a just allocation may be the driving force of adoption of a particular resource allocation system, such as the organ waiting list, it is important to interrogate its implications on implementation. Manipulation of the system by able persons through various influential inputs is perhaps one of the most difficult areas of implementation of resource allocation. It follows that the less advantaged persons in the terminally ill group of patients will be subjected to injustice following such systems’ incapacity to equitably handle their plight. A review of the system operating in the health care system must be conducted to highlight the incapacity of dealing with the manipulations. Health care provision should be accorded to all persons regardless of their state of condition provided the justice system avails an equal chance of treatment and care. As an illustration of the practicality of the need for equitableness, the current American allocation system dictates certain conditions that the patient must fulfill to qualify for a top priority in the allocation of organs. Among the criteria for first consideration is the severity of the condition and chances of survival in case a transplant occurred. Based on the fact that the organ being transplanted is not replaced, as recommended on the organ swap system, this will remain to be a retrogressive system that can be likened to a death license. An equitable chance in the organ swap system can raise confidence among patients which has been demonstrated to positively work in the healing and recovery process thereby making justice in resource allocation a reason for all patients to have hope for another day alive.

References

Caplan, A. (2010) “Cutting in Line for Organ Transplants.” Retrieved from: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5810779/#.Tox3gGUrxkg

Childress, J. F. (1996) “Ethics and the Allocation of Organs for Transplantation” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 6, 397-401

Giuliano, K. K. (1997) “Organ Transplants: Tackling the Tough Ethical Questions.” Nursing, 27(5):34-38

Krom, R. A. (2005) “Earning Points for Moral Behavior: Organ Allocation Based on Reciprocity,” International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 19(1):73-83

McCarrick, M. (1995) “Organ Transplant Allocation,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 5(4):365-384

Menikoff, J. (1999) “Organ Swapping.” The Hasting Center Report, 29(6):28-33