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 A review of journal on nervous and mental disease

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Introduction

The study of counseling psychology entails details of the person history which helps in bringing out the underlying issues about their state of health. Nervous and mental diseases are ranked amongst the troublesome and expensive of human diseases when it comes to management. Mostly psychologists are concerned with the study of nervous and mental diseases of humans due to humanity’s highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness. Most schools of thought discussing on psychology have identified five key themes predominantly featured in these definitions: states of consciousness, higher or ultimate potential, transcendence, and the spiritual. Though the field is big and touches on many aspect, the authors working on the journal of nervous and mental diseases have helped in putting all needed information under one volume(Budde,2010,pp 10-17).

What authors were trying to do

Psychological authors had a very strong insight when it came to patients especially the post therapeutic times. Authors were majorly concerned with influence on the patients rather the type of psychotherapy used by the therapist. Accordingly, most contemporary learning centers of psychotherapy laid emphasis on the healing power of the therapeutic relationship.

This edition was extensively discussed and even a debate held on psychotherapy where a former statistician studying primarily signs and manifestation with depressed patients, reported that ;psychotherapy could be more effective compared with placebo, he also alluded that no single treatment mode had the edge in efficacy, finally, he made an assertion that the factors common to varied psychotherapies, such as whether or not the therapist had established a good working alliance with the patient, accounted much more to the discrepancies in outcomes than modalities specific techniques.Whilst some report on the some postulated that by attempting to manualize or program treatment,psychotherapists may actually had been reducing in efficacy, although the unplanned approach of many psychotherapists could not appeal to clients motive to solve their state of health through the application of specific techniques in addition to their traditional approaches(Wilber,2004,pp39-48)

While much early work on this subject was generated from a psychodynamic perspective, authors from other orientations have since written a lot on it and It has been discovered that their alignment seem to predict treatment adherence and concordance together with the outcome across a range of patients diagnoses and treatment modalities.

Also authors aimed at bringing to fore the statistical power of the therapeutic approaches and the extratherapeutic influences like client motivation and the severity of the problems due to specific techniques used.

How the authors did it

Needless to say majority of the authors actually came from the some field of practice, and accessing both the secondary and primary data was easy. For instance the works on eating disorders-a disease, which had widely been written on and many packages published mainly by the American family physician, in collaboration with the American Psychiatric Association. But this doesn’t mean the authors never put into consideration various aspects that to some extent serve as predisposing factors to neural and mental disease causation. A good analogy is when authors consider personality traits especially those associated with the increased problems on eating disorders.

At this point authors puts it that during adolescence these characters become intensified due to a wide range of cultural and physiological influences like, hormonal changes mostly related to puberty, stress associated with the approaching demands of socio-cultural influences and maturity and perceived expectations, especially in areas that concern body image.

The writers also used parameters on environment to exemplify their work. to the environment encompasses many aspects like the Child maltreatment, Social isolation, Cultural pressure, Peer pressure just to name a few. According to them, these factors do not necessarily have an immediate cause on neural and mental diseases but act gradually to produce effects.

Finally is worthy noting, that the successes of this work by the writers was accomplished through various collaborative work .For instance, they worked hand in hand field practitioners like psychologists ,peer group counselors and researchers who provided valuable information that saw this work perfectly completed(Azziz,2009,pp27-34)

What authors found out

The authors finding were based entirely on the treatment and responses thereof. Where by they argued that though diseases could easily be managed, different patients who sought out on medication had individualized feelings and behaviors instigated by their own thoughts instead of external forces such as other people, events, or situations; the idea was

to change how an individual thinks and responds to a situation even if the situation itself remained unchanged. In line with this, authors too touched on the need by patients to accept and commitment to therapy which they considered a center-stage towards a successful management.

Ideally, many patients showed some fear in the course of psychotherapeutic management whilst some patients were intentionally hid in the homes for fear of the untold stigmatization. Furthermore authors found that in the increasingly researchful and scientific world it was possible to counter to cognitive disorders by use of cognitive remediation therapy, which is based on a set of cognitive drills and some compensatory interventions used to enhance cognitive functioning(Mertizner,2005,pp117-129)

Personal view on the author’s findings

In the journal it is further postulated that as one the interventions to remedy this increasingly problematic conditions, religion should not be ignored and the use of cognitive remediation therapy. This must be fur fetched ideas and doctrines of many colorful personalities, in the name of spiritual teachers in the Western countries , such as Alice Bailey or Gurdjieff which have lately and oftenly been entrenched into the transpersonal psychology mainstream scene. This assertion is, generally, seen as dangerous to the aspiration of transpersonal psychologists to mount on a firm and respectable academic status. Since most psychologists incline to an eclectic approach.

Authors’ conclusion

The advocates of Transpersonal psychology most at times infer to themselves as the fourth wave surge of psychology which according to Maslow,even lives beyond

the self power of Humanistic psychology. Most authors reframes it that unlike the other schools of psychology i.e. psychoanalysis, behaviorism and humanistic psychology, which to some extend deny transcended part of soul, transpersonal psychology encompasses the whole spectrum which humans develop from prepersonality to transpersonality. In conclusion the authors lays it that transpersonal psychology could be considered the most integrated complete psychology, in other words it is referred to as a positive psychology par excellence.

Finally the authors view this from personality to transpersonality, neuroscience to Nirvana, mind to meditation, it is a complete a fully fletched science for all round treatment

and development.

References

Azziz, Robert (2009). Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian

Psychology, New Jersey: Greenwood

Budde, Stephanne L, Howard, Esther N.(2010). A journal on counseling psychology,

Vol 57(4), Issue 6, p400.

Mertinzer, Ralph (2005). . The Expansion of Consciousness, paperback, Berkeley, CA: Green

Earth Foundation & Regent Press

Wilber, Ken (2004). Let’s Nuke the Transpersonalists: A Response to Albert Ellis. Journal of

Counseling & Development, vol 67(3), Issue 7, p147.

The Murder Trial of OJ Simpson.

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Introduction

The sports trial of OJ Simpson is among the most famous trials in the history of sports. Although Simpson is a renowned pro-footballer, people will forever remember him for his involvement in the murder of Nicole Simpson and Ron Goldman. OJ Simpson was charged with their murders in 1994 embarking on a rather controversial trial that caught the attention of the entire world. Simpson was later acquitted of the two murders after 252 days of trial. The purpose of this essay is to weigh in on the facts surrounding OJ Simpson’s alleged murder of his estranged ex-wife and her friend. Further, the text assesses the outcome of the decision made in the case as well as any strange information that changed the direction of the case.

About the Murder Case

On June 12th, 1994, Nicole Simpson and her friend were found stabbed to death on the night of 12th June 1994 in Los Angeles outside Simpson’s condominium. This after Nicole and Simpson had attended their daughter’s dance recital and the family proceeded to go eat at the Mezzaluna restaurant before heading to the condominium. The neighbors testified that they had heard intense barking coming from outside during the night and that one of the dog walkers living in the block has come across Brown’s dog in distress and covered in blood (Sayers, 2020). The two bodies were discovered by the couple that came to return Brown body. The scene had a lot of blood with Brown found lying face down at the foot of the stairs. She had multiple neck and head injuries. The front door was open pointing to the lack of forced entry. Her friend Goldman’s body also lay close to the tree by the fence with several neck and body injuries signifying defensive wounds and struggle. Simpson was arraigned formerly on July 22nd, 1994 where he entered a plea of not guilty before the trial formerly beginning in January with Ilto Lance as the presiding judge.

The outcome of Decision Made

The jury started deliberating on 2nd October 1995 and in less than four hours, they had reached a verdict. Lance, the presiding judge however delayed making the announcement till the following day. OJ Simpson was found not guilty of the murders of Ron Goldman and Nicole Brown on 3rd October. Following the verdict, the public pools were segregated along racial lines. The white population was dismayed by the decision made by the jury while most African Americans supported the ruling. For the black population, Simpson witnessing Simpson being acquitted in a system that systematically discriminated against people of color was a victory. Although Simpson was acquitted, the victim’s families sued him for wrongful death in 1996. Four months later, the jury found Simpson responsible for the death of the two victims in a civil trial awarding their families $33.5 million in damages (Boban, 2018). At the time, most cable television networks devoted time to the public opinions and speculations of people about the case. Millions of people followed the proceedings of the trial throughout the day with the main figures of the case becoming instant celebrities.

Information that Changed the Case.

Simpson’s defense was mainly founded on grounds that most of the police officers in the Loss Angeles police department were being racist and that the glove presented as evidence was too small to fit Simpson’s arm. This is after Simpson tried to fit the glove in the courtroom during the trial. Mark Fuhrman, the detective said to have discovered the bloody leather in the scene of the murder was particularly deemed racist. The prosecution on the other hand built their case on grounds that domestic violence had ensued after the couple had divorced which they pointed to as the motive of the murder. Worth noting, OJ Simpson was represented by a team of attorneys called the dream team that included Robert Blasier, Lee Bailey, Robert Shapiro, Shawn Holley, and Allan Dershowitz. The defense team initially alleged that three exhibits were planted by the police who had the intention of framing him. However, in an eventful twist, it was argued that all blood evidence was planted by racist police officers. Six individuals were accused of participating in a scheme to frame Simpson including Mark Fuhrman, Thano Peratis (prison nurse), Dennis Fung(criminalist), Colin Yamauchi, Phillip Vannater (detective), and Andrea Mazzola. In the closing remarks, the defense referred to Vannater and Fuhrman as ‘twins of deception’ and called upon the jury to remember Fuhrman as ‘ the man that discovered the glove and Vannater as the “man who planted the blood evidence’. The bloody glove was the last exhibit that was discovered at the scene. Unlike back gate and the sock, the prosecution provided no eyewitness or physical evidence to support their claims. Defense attorney Lee Bailey suggested that Fuhrman collected the glove at the murder scene, picked it with a stick, and placed it in a stored it in a plastic bag which he hid in his socks when he drove to the condominium in the company of Detective Phillips, Lange, and Vannater. Fuhrman would later plant the glove at the scene his motive being racism or wanting to come out as the hero in this high-profile case. Although the prosecution denied this, Simpson was granted a not-guilty verdict.

Conclusion.

The high-profile and highly controversial murder trial of OJ Simpson hit the media in October 1994. The renowned pro-footballer was accused of murdering his estranged ex-wife Nicole Brown and her friend Ron Goldman who were found gruesomely murdered on 12th June 1994 in Simpson’s condominium. Simpson was later acquitted of the two murders after 252 days of trial. Four months later, the jury found Simpson responsible for the death of the two victims in a civil trial awarding their families $33.5 million in damages. The bloody glove and conspiracy allegations against OJ Simpson completely changed the outcome of the case in which the jury found Simpson not guilty of both murders.

References

Boban, M. (2018). Race Issues in the OJ Simpson Case–Analysis of Alexander and Karaszewski’s American Crime Story (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zadar. Department of English.).

Sayers, H. (2020). If the Suit Doesn’t Fit: Marcia Clark and the OJ Simpson Trial. Women Leading Change: Case Studies on Women, Gender, and Feminism, 5(1), 48-59.

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The Stage Management Handbook

Chapter 8 Outline – Technical and Dress Rehearsals

Moving into the theater – Before any technical rehearsal, consult with the appropriate production stuff to establish the organization of the backstage space. The placement of equipment determines the onstage and offstage placement of properties, furniture, and set pieces. The Backstage equipment must be specified and put in place to ensure the efficient operation of the show during technical rehearsals and performance.   

Storage of furniture and set pieces – It is good to ensure storage that allows no obstruction to entrances and exits in setting the stage. Establish crossovers around the set and ensure that they are clear of impediments.

Property tables – Should be located offstage as needed and ideally in locations that stimulate their positions in the rehearsal room. They should be covered with kraft or butcher paper and labeled for each item to be stored.

Flashlights – Flashlights are used as signaling devices and also in the production of light.

Communication – Communication needs vary from production to production, but the equipment is generally the same and thus should be installed and checked out prior to technical rehearsals. The basics of the audio communication system include the stage monitor, intercom, page system, and house address system.

Performance Checklist – Organization is the key to the managing of stage performance, which is potentially chaotic and overwhelming. It helps in breaking the list into components of the production and then within each area focus on the individual items that should be inspected, tested, or need to be put in place.

The set – Should be inspected thoroughly to ensure that it is in the proper position and secure.

Masking – Must be positioned correctly to ensure non-interference with the actors, scene shifts, lights, and sounds. Ensure the masking is dressed neatly, positioned at the proper trim height, covers sightlines and is in safe operational condition.  

Props and furniture – Inspection should ensure proper positioning, good repair, and operational, and also whether it looks the way it is supposed to look like.

Costumes and makeups – A complete list of costumes, accessories, and makeup items for each actor should be posted in the dressing rooms.  

Lights – The lighting design in the production requires the intimate participation of the stage most for most of its execution.  

Sound – The checklist should include a test of every speaker, microphone, and playback device that are used for the production.

Special effects – Checklist should include the special effects entries with the appropriate department.

Emergency equipment – First aid kits, fire extinguishers, and other emergency equipment should be inspected on a regular basis and should be positioned in their designed locations, well-stocked, and clearly labelled for proper use.

Dressing rooms and support facilities – Make sure that dressing rooms and lavatories have been cleaned and stocked with adequate supplies, also take note of any burned-out lights and any mechanical or plumbing problems that requires reporting.

Front of house and facilities – The various items to check include an audience seating area, auditorium lighting, aisles, and aisle lights, emergency exits and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning to ensure that everything is in order.

The actors’ arrival – Before the initial rehearsal on stage theater, the actors need to be toured of the space and a rundown on how the place works. Dressing room assignments should be posted on the company’s call-board in advance of the actors’ arrival.   

Running the rehearsal – Before running the show, ensure everything is in order with all the technical elements being in their respective places.

The calls – Allow enough time for the crew to prepare for the rehearsals adequately to prevent waiting. Ensure that all equipment problems are solved prior to the rehearsals and ensure that the actors are given a half-hour call.   

The run-through – Work hard to ensure keeping attention to everyone as well as the rehearsal on track. Posting a running order that includes a list of the scenes of the play in playing order and a very brief description of the scene will help in ensuring a smooth run-through.

A Review of Literature on the Effects of Using Repeated Reading to Aid Comprehension and Fluency with Learning Disabled Students

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Table of Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716246″CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION PAGEREF _Toc398716246 h 2

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716247″1.0 Background Information PAGEREF _Toc398716247 h 2

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716248″1.1 Problem Statement PAGEREF _Toc398716248 h 2

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716249″1.2 Purpose of the Study PAGEREF _Toc398716249 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716250″1.3 Conceptual Framework PAGEREF _Toc398716250 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716251″1.4 Significance of the Study PAGEREF _Toc398716251 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716252″1.6 Assumptions PAGEREF _Toc398716252 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716253″1.7 Outline of the Paper PAGEREF _Toc398716253 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716254″CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW PAGEREF _Toc398716254 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716255″2.0 Reading Research: Historical Overview PAGEREF _Toc398716255 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716256″2.1 Fluency and Reading PAGEREF _Toc398716256 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716257″2.2 Repeated Readings and its Impacts on Fluency and Comprehension Skills PAGEREF _Toc398716257 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716258″2.3 Repeated Readings and Fluency among Students with Learning Difficulties PAGEREF _Toc398716258 h 11

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716259″CHAPTER 3: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS PAGEREF _Toc398716259 h 13

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716260″3.1 Discussions PAGEREF _Toc398716260 h 13

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716261″3.2 Implications for Teachers PAGEREF _Toc398716261 h 15

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716262″3.3 Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc398716262 h 16

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716263″3.4 Implications for Future Research PAGEREF _Toc398716263 h 17

HYPERLINK l “_Toc398716264″References PAGEREF _Toc398716264 h 18

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1.0 Background Information

According to the data from National Centre for Education Statistics (2009), almost half of the country’s 1st to 8th-grade students have a problem with reading fluency. This data also indicate sustained levels of reading difficulties in the country for the past 10 years. This has propagated increased research on reading achievement by educationalists (NCES, 2009). However, the legislation of the No Child Left Behind legislation on 2002 has forced instructors and leaders in education to revise their strategies to meet this need (NCLB, 2002). According to Calhoon (2005), academic success, independence, and employability of an individual are founded on the ability to master the reading skills. Illiteracy is known to prevent an individual from being productive in a society (Kim, 2008). Due to this challenge, researchers have in the recent past focused on developing the most appropriate approach to teaching learners how to read (Cassidy et al., 2010). Well-educated citizens that are literate are better placed to positively contribute to the advancement of a society through evaluating data, making informed decisions, effectively solving problems, and improving the quality of their lives as well as that of others of others in a society. This places emphasis on the imperativeness of reading skills in the society

1.1 Problem StatementAs much as teaching learners how to read is considered as among the main aims of education, numerous students are found to have difficulty in learning even the basic reading skills. Studies indicate that 20 percent of students suffer significant difficulties in acquiring reading skills (NCES, 2009). Furthermore, over a third of students in fourth-grade level have poor basic reading skills. The situation is further compounded for students with special learning needs, as they are found to struggle with reading difficulty in educational life as well as adult life (Calhoon, 2005). The sustained prevalence of students with reading difficulties has forced educationalists to reexamine the approaches to teaching reading skills in schools. A report from the national reading panel published in 2001 identified reading fluency, text comprehension strategies, vocabulary instructions, phonics, and phonemic awareness as essential reading skills (NICHHD, 2000). This paper presents a critical analysis the concept of repeated reading and its effectiveness in promoting comprehension and fluency reading skills among students with learning disabilities

1.2 Purpose of the StudyThis paper purposed to scrutinize whether repeated reading approach had an effect on the general reading capabilities and attitudes among school going children. Recent studies on this issue have emphasized on the need of implementing research findings into the instructional process as a way of positively influencing the reading skills of learners (Brown, 2011).This paper presents an analysis the effectiveness of repeated reading strategy in enhancing reading skills among learners based on existing studies on the issue

1.3 Conceptual Framework

The importance of reading fluency in education emerged in the late 1960s (Brown, 2011). This was built on two theoretical constructs that have been greatly cited by various authors on this issue. Specifically, reading fluency problems are believed to originate from poor decoding skills by the readers (Brown, 2011; Guthrie et al., 2004). The existence of slowed down decoding skills results in formation of a bottleneck that obstructs the thought flow ultimately inhibiting comprehension (Brown, 2011; Cassidy et al., 2010) Learners with poor reading skills spend most of their cognitive capabilities on decoding limiting their comprehension capabilities (Cassidy et al., 2010). Effortless readers, on the other hand, are able to decode words speedily with accuracy allowing them to have enough capabilities for comprehension (Lo et al., 2011).

On the contrary, another theory on reading asserts that the difficulty to read fluently originates from the lack of prosodic cues in written language (Francis et al., 2005). This position is defended by the argument that some readers are incapable of conveying from oral language, where prosodic markers are precise to written language, and the learner must infer the markers (Therrien & Hughes, 2008). Learners that are unable to come up with suitable prosodic markers are not in a position to separate sentences into meaningful expressions and thus face difficulties in comprehending written text even if they are able to effectively decode individual words (Morgan & Sideridis, 2006). This position is backed by various authors who argue that text-reading process is complex and requires assimilation of all levels of processing as from the initial decoding of individual words to acquisition of the denotation of the sentence, paragraph, and the whole information in general (Morgan & Sideridis, 2006; Therrien, 2004; Neumann et al., 2008).

1.4 Significance of the StudyThe study contributes to educational practice and theory on teaching learners how to read. From a theoretical perspective, the study offers various contributions to existing positions on approaches to teaching students how to read. Concerning repeated reading strategy, the study provides insight into how repeated reading is perceived by various authors in terms of its effectiveness in promoting student reading capabilities. The study indicates the existence of differentiation in students with the learning disorder in terms of their reading capability due to adherence and non-adherence to repeated reading strategy (O’ Connor et al., 2007).

These results of this research study are also relevant to practical teaching practice as they show student variations in reading capacity. Consequently, teachers will have evidence required for designing and implementing differentiated programs aimed at improving reading skills among learners. Particularly, this will assist education leadership and teachers to design effective teaching programs that recognize the differences in how learners acquire reading skills with a focus on the use of repeated reading strategy in the management of reading deficiency among students with learning disabilities

1.6 AssumptionsThis research paper is based on specific assumptions that are delineated below:

The data collected by existing studies was adequate in terms of covering all the variables that were under investigation in this study

The existing studies provided truthful information regarding the issues under analysis

1.7 Outline of the Paper

The introductory chapter has background information, the research problem, Conceptual framework, and the contributions of the study. The second chapter provided a comprehensive review of the literature on reading difficulties among learners with a specific focus on the role of repeated rereading strategy in the management of reading difficulties. In the third chapter, the discussion, implications, conclusions, and recommendations on the issue with a specific focus on the information in literature review was developed

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Reading Research: Historical Overview

The methodology of teaching was blamed for ineffectiveness in the development of reading skills among learners as early as 1955 (Brown, 2011). A study by Chall (1967) examined whether children are able to develop reading skills well if the teaching methodology emphasized on phonics code or an approach centered on stressing the meaning. Findings of this study indicated that emphasis on phonics code had better results that comprehension and word recognition. Goodman (1965), disproof disapproved this position by arguing that children have different approaches in the identification of words including context clues and background knowledge. A study by Brown (2011) affirmed that reading out the whole word enhanced the reading abilities among learners. However, Goodman was against the approach that focused on teaching word recognition in isolation. This resulted to the development of psycholinguistic theory of reading that resulted to increased interest in research on how learners mind behave when occupied in reading (Kim, 2008).

The position adopted by Goodman was influential on the studies on reading behaviors among students (Brown, 2011). In the 1979s and 1980s, reading research was dominated by cognivitism with the focus on the eye movement during reading as well as the effect of context on the reading process (Brown, 2011). In the 1990s, more studies on reading were develop emphasizing on the processes and practices of teaching and learning how to reading (Brown, 2011). A study by Adams (1990) came up with an integrated approach to teaching how to read that combined systematic coding and meaningful reading in the teaching process.

Currently, the national reading panel (NRP) is the main source of instructional approaches for teaching learners how to read ((NICHHD, 2000). This approach recommends the use of several teaching approaches that amalgamates into a well-balanced literacy program. Specifically these approaches target the five pillars of reading, namely vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, phonics, and phonemic awareness as being the vital aspects of reading instruction (Cassidy et al., 2010).

2.1 Fluency and ReadingThe NRP has been at the center on the development of fluency as an essential reading skill. There exist innumerable studies that have analyzed the concept of fluency and its application to the learning process (Hudson et al., 2005; O’ Connor et al., 2007). However, its definition in the context of reading is varies from one researcher to another. Specifically, some studies define fluency based on speed and accuracy, while others identify prosody and comprehension as major attributes of fluency (Brown, 2011). Fluency can be defined as the capability of a learner to read with accuracy, speed, and expression (Armbruster et al., 2003). It can also be defined as an accurate approach to reading of information as a conversation with fitting prosody (Hudson et al., 2005)

The National Reading Panel identified high levels of fluency neglect in most schools in the United States (NCES, 2009). NRP went further and proposed two instructional strategies targeting promotion of reading fluency among learners. These strategies included the independent silent reading strategy and the guided repeated oral reading (Kim, 2008). The common agreement among researchers that fluency is developed through reading has resulted to increased adoption of the NRP strategies in a classroom environment. Specifically, studies have shown that guided oral reading has a positive impact on comprehension, word recognition, and fluency (Kim, 2008; Cassidy et al., 2010). However, the existence of numerous approaches for implementing the repeated reading approach demanded research into the most effective approach for promoting fluency and comprehension

2.2 Repeated Readings and its Impacts on Fluency and Comprehension SkillsSeveral research studies have been conducted on repeated readings dating back to as early as 1979, which iterated that repeated reading is founded on repetitive practice of the text (Samuels, 1979; Dahl, 1979). Kuhn and Stahl (2003) conducted a review of various studies on the impact of repeated reading on fluency. The findings indicated that most studies found a significant impact while others had null impact, and some showed the impact was limited to the repeated text only and not transferable to other texts. The position adopted in these studies was explained that the studies that found null impact did not meet the minimum number of times for defining repetitive reading, which were placed at five times by Dahl and Samuel.

Another study by O’Connor et al. (2007) examined the impact of complexity of the reading material and found out that using material that was relevant to the instructional level of the learner greatly influenced the fluency gains. Repeated reading among learners has been found to result to better work accuracy and comprehension (Hudson et al., 2005). Therefore, as learners repeat reading a text, they learn new sight words, which they then apply in new texts (Neumann et al., 2008). Most studies that have reported insignificant or no improvement in comprehension skills had no effective baseline for developing the measure. Therrien (2004) suggests that the students under study many not have fluency problems making it hard to detect improvement in comprehension skills.

As much as repeated reading is generally known to positively impact on fluency, its impact on comprehension skills is not always guaranteed (Morgan & Sideridis, 2006). Various studies on comprehension skills have provided varied findings. Some studies show a general trend in the increase of fluency and comprehension skills simultaneously (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Other studies affirm that repeated reading enhances fluency but does not always result to the development of better comprehension skills (Therrien, 2004). Another suggestion for this anomaly is the possibility of students reading a text that is inappropriate to their level. A study by Therrien & Hughes (2008) identifies shortage of higher order thinking skills such as supervision of the text as contributory to inability of repetitive reading to result to better comprehension skills.

Furthermore, the approaches adopted in measuring comprehension in repetitive reading studies are also varied. Learners that are reading a text learn facts from the information and, therefore, repeated reading is supposed to generally show improved comprehension skills when measured as learners are able to clearly identify the answer they are being comprehended on in the text. However, many studies use literal knowledge to test comprehension skills that demand a learner to integrate previous knowledge and the information in the text (Therrien & Hughes, 2008). The fact that repeated reading strategies do not emphasize on inferential comprehension, such tests are likely to present a negative outcome of repeated reading on comprehension skills. Moreover, many studies on repeated reading present data for both literal and inferential questioning as a single score. This atonality limits the ability of testing the gains in comprehension skills (Bryant et al., 2000). This position is further illustrated by Freeland et al. (2000) who pointed out that repeated reading has a positive impact on the learners’ literal comprehension skills but has null impact on inferential comprehension skills. Therefore, the use of text comprehensions strategies that combines both literal and inferential comprehension is necessary for improving the reading achievement.

2.3 Repeated Readings and Fluency among Students with Learning DifficultiesThe effectiveness of repeated reading in enhancing fluency and comprehension skills among students with learning disabilities has not been fully studies to affirm the status of evidence-based justification (Chard et al., 2009). This position was adopted by Chard et al. (2009) after conducting an analysis of existing studies and concluded that the studies were not empirical in nature. However, this position was adopted devoid of studies that more than one additional instructional components such as comprehension and development of vocabulary. However, the fact that most studies have documented that repeated readings promote oral fluency, a blended approach with several instructional components is bound to enhance the effectiveness. Several studies have analyzed students with learning disabilities and identified deficits in skills such a comprehension, fluency, word recognition, and motivation (Francis et al., 2005; Guthrie et al., 2004). Since all these skills are directly attributed to the development of comprehension capabilities, the use of reading instructions that combine all these components offers better outcomes (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2005). For instance, an approach that combined readings and question generation developed by Wickstrom & Jones (2006) was effective in promoting fluency and comprehension skills among learners with learning disabilities.

A more recent look into this issue was by Lo et al. (2011), was based on a study that contained an adult-directed reading meditation. The study found out that direct involvement of an adult in the repeated reading process hastened the rate of acquisition of the reading skills. In general, repeated reading has been found to positively impact on the reading skills among learners with learning disabilities (Therrien, 2004). In his study, Therrien (2004) concluded that adult implementation, cueing, a minimum of four times of text repetition, corrective feedback and performance criterion are vital components of an effective instructional strategy targeting enhancement of reading skills among students with learning disabilities.

CHAPTER 3: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS3.1 DiscussionsFrom the above literature review, it is evident that learners that have poor literacy skills require data based intervention to enable them improve in their reading skills. Many of the studies analyzed have indicated that repeated reading is a powerful tool that can help in the enhancement of fluency and comprehension skills among learners (Hudson et al., 2005; Cassidy et al., 2010; Lo et al., 2011). Repeated reading has been shown to positively influence reading achievement as well as attitudes among learners (Lo et al., 2011; Calhoon, 2005). However, when implementing the reading training among learners, teachers should consider motivational factors, the needs of the learners, materials that relay the content to the learners in an appropriate manner, instructional approaches that have scientific backing and engage the learner, and the specific skills needed by the learner to become a proficient reader (NCES, 2009; Brown, 2011; Kim, 2008).

Based on the literature reviewed above, repeated readings that considered content based literacy proved effective in addressing the reading problems among learners. More so, the studies conducted a measure of repeated readings based on performance assessments that clearly indicated that repeated readings positively enhance fluency and comprehension skills (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). This is evidenced by the position taken by Therrien (2004) that validated previous studies that had asserted that repeated reading is effective for promoting development of fluency and comprehension skills among learners. The analysis drawn from various studies clearly indicated that repeated reading has a positive impact on student’s word efficiency, sight word, and reading comprehension, as well as general improvement in literacy (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; O’ Connor et al., 2007; Neumann et al., 2008). Specifically, studies on the impact of repeated reading for learners with learning disabilities showed that if well used with several approaches, repeated reading can effectively promote literacy in such students (Calhoon, 2005; Morgan & Sideridis, 2006). This is a clear indication that repeated reading has the potential of promoting development of fluency and comprehension skills among learners with learning disabilities. The fact reading is a cornerstone in the learning process, considerations of implementing repeated reading strategy in learning institution targeting students with learning difficulties is essential in the elimination of reading and comprehension gaps between the normal learners and the learners with learning difficulties.

Consequently, repeated reading is an effective tool for improvement of fluency and comprehension skills among disabled as well as non-disabled learners in terms of learning difficulties. The use of sources that utilized both transfer and non-transfer measures allowed this investigation to develop a deeper analysis of the concept of repeated reading and its impact on learner’s literacy (Morgan & Sideridis, 2006). The analysis of studies founded on non-transfer perspective that measured the ability of a student to fluently read a specific text after repeated reading indicated that repeated reading is effective for promoting fluency and comprehension skills for a specific text (Therrien & Hughes, 2008). Therefore, students that are exposed to reading a passage more than once generally read it more fluently and offer better comprehension of the passage. On the other hand, transfer results that examined the student’s ability to read fluently and comprehend another text after reading a different text repeatedly indicated that students that are exposed to repeated readings of a specific text are better placed in terms of fluency and comprehensions skills when reading a different text (Chard et al., 2009). As a result, repeated reading has the capability of improving learners’ comprehension and fluency abilities when exposed to new reading materials.

The review of literature also offered insights into the instructional components for promoting repeated reading among learners. The most evident approach that was considered essential in most studies is the approach that demanded learners to read the text loudly to the teacher (Chard et al., 2009; Francis et al., 2005; Guthrie et al., 2004). This position was founded adult implemented approach to repeated reading as studies demonstrated that instances where a teacher was actively involved in the repeated reading process produced better results compared to instances where the learners were exposed to repeated reading individually (Guthrie et al., 2004). Another important finding on repeated reading from the review of the literature was provision of a cue and repetition process being more than four times. Specifically, the cue to be provided was a challenging issue as studies were divided between using speed and comprehension or fluency, or comprehension (Lo et al., 2011; Cassidy et al., 2010). However, from the studies, there was negligible impact on fluency and comprehension skills when the cueing approach was changed and therefore provided cuing is part of the repeated reading instructions, then it is bound to work effectively in promoting literacy. For the learners with learning disabilities, cueing approach that considered comprehension has better results in terms of memory as compared to speed cuing. Nevertheless, since several studies suggested that an integrated approach has better results, this study proposed that the most effective approach for cuing should combine both comprehension and speed cuing (Cassidy et al., 2010; Kim, 2008; NCES, 2009).

3.2 Implications for TeachersThis research developed two major findings that have implications for the teacher-learner environments regarding reading skills. To begin with, studies have shown that repeated reading can be used as an instructional approach for improving learners’ fluency and comprehension of text. The second finding is that there are specific instructional components that are needed to ensure repeated reading strategy is beneficial as a tool for promoting literacy among learners. Specifically, the choice of instructional components is dependent on the objective of the intervention. If repeated reading targets improvement of students’ fluency and comprehension skills for a specific text, the approach should cue students with a focus on comprehension and speed, and the text should be loudly read by the learners more than three times. However, if the intention of repeated reading targets the overall literacy of the learners, then the essential components of the instruction process should include reading the passage loudly to an adult instructor, the instructor should provide corrective feedback on specific words in the text. Additionally, the student must read the text many times until the set performance standards are met.

3.3 ConclusionUsing the literature review, this study has been able to offer a better understanding of the current position regarding repeated reading and its impact on the improvement of fluency and comprehension skills among learners with learning disabilities. Specifically, the study has pointed out that the impacts of repeated reading in the development of reading skills is positive for students with learning difficulties as well as those without learning difficulties. Moreover, it was evident that the approach adopted in offering repeated reading instructions is controlled by the objectives of the process with a specific focus on nontransferable and transferable fluency and comprehension skills. The fact that effective literacy is founded on transferable reading skills where a student is able to apply fluency and comprehension skills read in a text to another different text, the focus on developing instructional approaches that promoted development of transferable reading skills was viewed as imperative in educational development.

3.4 Implications for Future ResearchAs much as this study proved that repeated reading has a positive impact on fluency and comprehension skills among learners, there are several critical queries that were not well responded to in the reviewed studies. The most burning issue relates to the approach for increasing instructional components, using a modeling component, the role of peers in promoting repeated reading effectiveness, and the most effective approach for measuring the overall impact for repeated reading on literacy achievement. This study has identified the vital instructional components of repeated reading but the lack of analysis on the impact of additional instructional components limited the ability of this investigation in pointing out how they may influence development of literacy skills. Thus, developing a better understanding of the effect of repeated reading in promoting literacy among learners with learning difficulties, long-term studies are necessary. The lack studies that have focused on this group of learners for more than 6 months makes the existing data limited in terms of affirming the importance of repeated learning and developing the most appropriate instructional approach targeting learners with learning difficulties is challenging. Specifically, developing a quasi-experiment approach may provide deeper insights into this issues and their impact on repeated reading as a reading skill development strategy.

ReferencesAdams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print (A summary). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2003). Putting reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Kindergarten through grade 3 (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: National Institute for Literacy.

Bryant, D. P., Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Ugel, N., Hamff, A., & Hougen, M. (2000). Reading outcomes for students with and without reading disabilities in general education middle-school content area classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 238-252.

Brown, Elizabeth. (2011). History of reading instruction. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.thephonicspage.org/On%20Phonics/historyofreading.html”http://www.thephonicspage.org/On%20Phonics/historyofreading.html.

Calhoon, M.B. (2005). Effects of a peer-mediated phonological skill and reading comprehension program on reading skill acquisition for middle school students with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5, 424-433.

Chall, J. S. (1967). Learning to read: The great debate. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

Cassidy, J, Montalvo Valadez, C., & Garrett, S. (2010) Literacy trends and issues: A look at the five pillars and the cement that supports them. The Reading Teacher, 63(8), 644-655.

Chard, D. J., Ketterin-Gellar, L. R., Baker, S. K., Doabler, C., & Apichatabutra, C. (2009). Repeated Reading Interventions for Students With Learning Disabilities. Status of the Evidence. Exceptional Children, 75(3), 263-281.

Dahl, P. R. (1979). An experimental program for teaching high-speed word recognition and comprehension skills. In J. E. Button, T. Lovitt, & T. Rowland (Eds)., Communications research in learning disabilities and mental retardation (pp. 33-65). Baltimore, MD: University Park Press

Freeland, J. T., Skinner, C. H., Jackson, B., McDaniel, C. E., & Smith, S. (2000). Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehension rates: Empirically validating a repeated reading intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 37(5), 415-429.

Francis, D., Fletcher, J., Catts, H., & Tomblin, J. (2005). Dimensions affecting the assessment of reading comprehension. In S. Paris, & S. Stahl (Eds.), Children’s reading comprehension and assessment (pp. 369-394). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., et al. (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 403-423.

Guthrie, J. T. & Wigfield, A. (2005). Roles of motivation and engagement in reading comprehension assessment. In S. Paris, & S. Stahl (Eds.), Children’s Reading Comprehension and Assessment (pp. 187-213). Mahwah: NJ: Erlbaum.

Goodman, K. (1965). A linguistic study of cues and miscues in reading. Elementary English Journal, 42, 39-44.

Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? Reading Teacher, 58, 702–714.

Kim, J. (2008). Research and the reading wars. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(5), 372-375.

Kuhn, M., & Stahl, S. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 1-21.

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A Review of Naming the Witch: Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World by Kimberly B. Stratton

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A Review of Naming the Witch: Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World by Kimberly B. Stratton

In her book, Naming the Witch, Stratton provides a concise analysis of all the elements of culture and those that are ideologically oriented that motivated the early thoughts of magic, sorcery, as well as witchcraft in the antique world. She investigates the different ways in which stereotypes of magic and those who use it vary in the ancient world. Furthermore, she explores how the various social contexts in different historical periods influence particular stereotypes. Therefore studying Stratton’s work enables one to gain insight into the link between social, intellectual, and religious history of the ancient civilizations.

Notably, the past had very stringent rules against magic with the possibility of having a death sentence, marginalization of the individual or group of individuals if accused of practicing magic. It is worth noting that Stratton provides an analysis that overcomes the common views always propagated about these allegations and labels them as mere slander. According to her, representations and accusations of enchantment show how the ancient communities struggled to define authority, legitimacy as well as “others.”

Stratton examines the social context that give rise to specific stereotypes of magic concerning magic by exploring four different periods and cultures in the Ancient Mediterranean: the early Imperial Rome, Classical Greece, classical Greece, Rabbinic Judaism, as well as second and third Christianity. She argues that magic is a functional discourse, whose origins can be traced in Classical Athens; it was here that the concept of otherness cropped up after the Persian wars. The concept was then passed to Roman Society and the Hellenized world. The first chapter gives an introductory approach to magic, disclosure as well as beliefs. The latter chapters take us through the representations of magic in Greek, Roman, as well as Jewish Christian Literature. Towards the end, there is an epilogue for thoughts in gender, stereotyping and magic.

She determines her characters and place of study as a form of discourse that has its origins in the awareness of the alterity, in Athens, after warring with Persia, and then passed on to Rome and the rest of the ancient civilizations. She attempts to resolve the tension between continuing to study and the negativity associated with it, as well as rejecting it all together. Her work focuses on getting material evidence on the practice of magic for a detailed assessment, available literature that focus on reconstructing the social of magic and the magician, as well as recognize the connotations of magic in both ancient civilizations and modern usage. Her literary work concentrates on sources of stereotypes and their representations in literature.

At the beginning of the first chapter, she focuses on the various magical representations and stereotypes were shaped, as well as how magic emerged as a function of social and historical factors. She traces the available historical data on magic, sciences and religion (Pachoumi 138). She adopted Foucault’s definition of magic as a discourse and concentrated on the effect of both cultural and historical factors, the native concept of magic, as well as its agonistic features. Towards the end of chapter one, we get insightful knowledge of how the ancient Greek, Hebrews and Romans viewed magic.

Stratton explores the discursive formation of magic in Ancient Athens. She notes that the battle of Marathon probably remains one of the most important events in the history of Greece. To an extent, it marks a major turning point; the Athenians defeated the invincible Persians (p. 39-69). Democracy proved a reliable form of government, hence, the association of the Athenians with democracy increased tremendously. The introduction of new legal matters sought to limit and control the extent to which women participated in leadership and public life. The Athenians attributed citizenship solely to the men. Furthermore, the Greeks were self-absorbed and regarded Non-Greeks as “barbarians,” hence, their ongoing war-like operations against the Persians.

She argues that the emergence of magic after the Persian defeat was part of the discourse of alterity, in what she terms as the discourse of barbarism. The magic discourse was strengthened by a new type of ritual with binding spells, introduced to the Athenians from Mesopotamia in the archaic period. The discourse of magic draws on female alterity in Attic tragedy (Pachoumi 138). She closely examines the portrayal of Medea in Euripides’ Medea, where women use magic to gain power, revenge, as well as sexual jealousy. In this chapter, magic was considered very harmful and dangerous.

In chapter three, Stratton examines the existence of magic in Roman Literature (Stratton 71-105). She debates that there was an element of fear of women among the Romans, and through cultural interactions, some stereotypical concepts originated in Athens and was propagated in Rome. This fear, she seeks to prove, had a cause and may have had its foundations from the fact that some women were economically stable and independent (Kraus 51). The economic independence and an extent of social freedom witnessed in some Roman women developed as far as the 3rd century (Pachoumi 139). These independent women were regarded as either wicked or immoral. According to her, accusations about women’s immorality and misconduct exposed the social rivalries between men.

The marriage and adultery laws passed by Augustus aimed at idealizing and politicizing the vision of female behavior as part of his imposing belief (p.99). This resulted in the emergence of the image of the immoral witch. The Senate Tribunal accused women of practicing magic, and they were convinced that women practiced witchcraft more than men. Stratton sees the mixing of the discourse of magic and the emergence of the wicked women as a sensible development of the discourse alterity. Her examination of women who practiced magic reveals that such women aggressively used magic more than the Ancient Athenians.

Chapter of her work is dedicated to early Christianity and their view of magic (107-141). The life of the life of Early Christians is contrasted with malpractice. The early Christian depiction of magic begins from the book of Luke to Acts of the Apostles in The New Testament. Simon, for instance, is said to have amazed the Samaritans with his magical deeds. Later on, we see him leveling accusations of magic against the male representatives of sanctioned rituals like Elymas. This is just to mention but a few. In her writings, Stratton demonstrates that there may be ideological strategies behind particular stories. She observes that Simon the Magus, is demonized and, consequently marginalized in the Acts of Apostles.

Moreover, her sample of demonized magicians and the conflict between legitimate supernatural power and heretic power could be enriched and enlarged; though it misses in her publication. In her work, she points out that the early Christian writers did not demonize women, but men, who seduced women and lured them into their heretic practices, in what she terms male magicians and their female followers (p. 130).

When Christianity became a factor in the Roman Society, the belief that men lured women into magic, came into an abrupt halt. Instead, women became the target of the ideological Christian writers. These changes paralleled the stereotypes found in the Roman Society. Stratton notes the battle for supremacy between Christian supernatural miracles and the heretic magical practices like those of Simon Magus. Hence, what we know today is a depiction of the case from a winner’s perspective, but not from the Magus side. Thus, magic was an effective discourse in the life of the early Christians and served to demonize those who took part in the religious competition.

In her last chapter, Stratton deals with the rabbinic literature (143-76). She presents a number of rabbis who studied and used diverse forms of magic. This was an absolute proof that magic was something that could be comprehended and at the same time, manifest divine power, which may be subversively dangerous at times. This ambivalence of magic as both powerful and dangerous is expressed in the Babylonian Talmud. This exposes her optimism to unearth early attitudes and social principles preserved in rabbinic sayings.

Stratton feels free to provide the reader with numerous to demonstrate her point that magic works ambivalently. As a way of regulating the influence of women, rabbinic sources show that feminine magic is linked with food so that authority and strength of men resulted from the consumption of this food. Stratton also demonstrates that cultural and religious view influenced the rabbinic view and the discourse of exertion of power in relation to magic.

The connection between representations of magic and as well as their historical contexts makes Stratton’s work invaluable to anyone interested in the study of the various cultural practices of the ancient societies. Her work is clearly written and well structured, as well as providing the necessary materials for readers who may not have the same depth of background in the early civilizations. She considers the origin of magic and the ideologies behind “Othering Devices.”

The theoretical end pieces are in a way, the most stimulating part of the book, as Stratton neatly lays her ideas, and tackles some of the greatest problems in the study of ancient magic. She also provides a good summary of the hullabaloos that have been problematic to earlier scholars. She goes ahead to show how her approach to magic as a discourse of alterity could evade or resolve many challenges caused by the essential definitions of magic. By examining the various modes of alterity, she highlights how particular stereotypes are linked to the specific social concerns of the time and strategies to constructing legitimate authority.

Stratton notes the use of female figures as “Others” in contexts in ancient civilizations. She takes note of the vengeful feminine witch figures in Greek tragedy, in contrast to the lustful women in Roman poetry. She argues that both these female types differ from the male sorcerers of early Christian writings. The early sorcerers in early Christian literature make women their victims. She notes that while the Greek and Roman literatures contrasted women to a normal male citizen, the Christian writers, however, conceived as “Others” in the Roman Empire, and presented the vulnerabilities of women in the hands of men.

Therefore, Stratton’s approach that is much explorative and relative clearly indicates the extent to which magic was a cultural piece which depended upon and mirrored particular social contexts. Her piece of work is exemplary since it includes antique Judaism, unlike previous scholars whose writings distinguished the classical world and Judaism. The book further illustrates the degree to which the ancient cultures shared ideas concerning power and legitimate authority, as well as developing the ideologies behind these and in varied approaches.

Bibliography

Kraus, Thomas J. Gender, Religion and Theory. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.

Pachoumi, Elen. “Naming the Witch: Magic, Ideology and Stereotype in the Ancient World

(Review).”Magic, Ritual & Witchcraft, 5(1); pp. 138-142, 2010

Stratton, Kimberly B. Naming the Witch: Magic, Ideology, & Stereotype in the Ancient World.

New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.

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The Song that I like

Music happens to be one of the most powerful and important things in life. Life would feel totally empty without harmonies and melodies. Playing and listening to different melodies aids to relax, de-stress and can be a motivation in hard times. I like listening to songs since they are like the memoirs to my life as it has been in existence throughout everything with me. In this paper, I will talk about the song that I like most and the reason why I like that particular song. It contains the explanations of the lyrics and music, a description of what the video adds to my appreciation of the music, and an explanation of the song craft and what works for the artist.

One of the songs that I like most is called Shape of you by Ed Sheeran. It has topped a lot of charts and been pushed around as a single song. It is a unique song majorly because of its island instrumentation and style beat. The lyrics appear exceptional for Ed Sheeran’s melodies. In the song, Ed Sheeran designates an affiliation that starts at a bar and swiftly leads to a bedroom. In a short time, the two individuals are courting; the man’s impetuosity and the woman’s body bring them together. In the song, Ed Sheeran shows how sexual fascination can result in a deeper affiliation but does not explore that; furthermore, choosing to center on sexual attraction, which is the leading theme of the song. The lyrics go additionally into the sexual attraction that is there among the two lovers and how fascinated the songster is by the appearance and features of the female singing to. The ‘Shape of you’ song follows a pop arrangement stereotype. It is composed and structured in verse, pre-chorus, chorus, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge, and chorus again. This specific organization is recognized as pop melody and exists in numerous songs.

Even though the Shape of you song is a pop song, it is also fused with dancehall beats in addition to tropical house sensation and beats to it. It has significant acoustics that is clear, and the thrumming is audible and clear all the way through the song. Furthermore, through the song’s progression, Ed Sheeran chants over a marimba beat that runs for the whole melody and is similarly the initial beat that plays solo for the initial few seconds of the song. The structure of the song has a gradual tempo from the commencement as it proceeds. It starts with the marimba, then by toms, and eventually followed by an acoustic guitar nearly immediately. Prior to the chorus, there is a break which is followed by a stimulating drop whereby the bass drum then joins in.

Ed Sheeran is deliberately playing with tradition by the combination into the song an island-style beat in this music. He relies on tradition as well as the song. The state where Ed Sheeran mainly relies on tradition is the arrangement of the genre in terms of the insertion of the chorus, verses, and bridge of the song. The recording of ‘Shape of you’ music is three minutes and fifty-three long. It has some pitch corrections combined with it. On the other hand, it has a slightly moderate tempo, and for that reason, very little pitch correction was required to make changes to the song.

In ‘Shape of you’ song, the pitch correction has been used on the chorus to make it sound as if Ed Sheeran had backup singers assisting him. The field modification is initially overheard in the song where he chants, “Say, boy, let’s not talk too much, Grab on my waist and put that body on me Come on now, follow my lead, Come, come on now, follow my lead” (Ed Sheeran). However, the pitch modification in it does not change the flow, the tempo, and the vocals’ progression but slightly fusions in well, contributing to an imposing sensation to the song’s chorus. From hearing the music, one notices that the pitch correction has also improved the extent of harmony to the song. The structure of the lyrics of the Shape of you is pretty much a stereotype of the majority of the pop melodies sung by other artists, in addition to those previously done by Ed Sheeran himself on his preceding tunes.

In the song, the vocal lines bounce against the beat, adding more rhythm to it. In the music video, Ed Sheeran does boxing, and he aids it to be more energetic. He also commences in a club where each person is dancing, then proceeds to boxing and training. The music video of the song jumps forth between fights, working out, and boxing. It helps by keeping once more the listeners and the watchers on their feet. It also assists by making it more optimistic, and the listeners want to desire it. The Shape of you needs one of the best songs that I like.

This is the link to the song: https://youtu.be/JGwWNGJdvx8

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The Stages of a Hero’s Journey in Campbell’s Self as a Hero

Introduction

If asked what traits the heroes in one’s life possess, what would you say? Most people are likely to describe their heroes as having a kind heart, undeniable strength, and a chiseled jaw. Unfortunately, not all people with these characteristics are true heroes. To know the true heroes, we must identify the true traits of a hero. Published in 2004, Joseph Campbell’s The Self as Hero is an enlightening adult speech describing a hero’s journey. Campbell uses examples from various movies, texts, and folklores to define the necessary steps to declare a hero. Heroes exist all around us, in movies, books, and shows we love to watch. Heroes also exist in real life; they show up, serve others and do their best each day. Bronzite (32) notes that “a hero is someone who has given his or her life to something bigger than oneself.” In the book, Campbell argues that all heroes go through the same if not similar stages in their quest to complete their journeys. To support his claims about the stages of a hero’s journey, Campbell cites evidence from tales such as “When the Two Came to their Father.” The purpose of this text is to expound on Campbell’s definition of a hero as a person who puts other people’s interests before his and embarks on a daunting journey. Additionally, the text analyzes the call to adventure and return stages as some of the steps of the hero’s journey in the text “Where the Two Came to their Father.”

Campbell & his Process of the “Hero’s Journey”

According to Campbell, a hero’s journey comprises three processes: departure, initiation, and return. In turn, the three processes can be broken down into four main stages, including a call to adventure, crossing the threshold, road of trails and the return. The first stage known as call to adventure stage represents an interruption in the hero’s daily life. The interruption occurs in the form of a threat to the hero’s livelihood, his community, or his loved one. Although it can occur in many forms, the hero cannot say no to no matter how much he tries. It is a disruption in the hero’s ordinary world presenting a challenge that should be accepted. In the second stage of crossing the threshold, it is the moment that the hero embarks on their journey. It is a time when the hero must travel worlds and step into a new and different world from the one they know. In this step, the hero’s journey invites danger and the fear of the unknown. Road of trails is the first step in the initiation stage, where the hero goes through a series of tests and challenges to trigger his transformation into becoming the hero they were meant to be. In this step, it is common for the hero to fail the tests a couple of times before ultimately overcoming all challenges. This step is imperative as it builds the hero’s character, strengthens him and boots his self-confidence. In the return stage, the hero has accomplished their journey and is often reluctant to go back to the life they once knew. The journey tends to change them. Although they have completed their quest, alternate powers continue to chase them. They have a chance to evade them and go back to the life they once lived.

The Story that Supports Campbell’s Journey of a Hero

“Where the Two came to their Father” is a work that richly depicts the creation of the rich symbolic legend of the Navaho people. It described how they held a ceremony to bless the members of the tribe as they were about to head for battle. Ethnologists Maud Oakes observed the rite during the Second World War when Native Americans were incorporated into the U.S. military for the first time in history. He recorded the entire event of the legend and reproduced the beautiful ceremonial paintings given to her by Jeff King, a medicine man of the time. It is worth noting that Joseph Campbell comments about the book in the commentary and gives insights into Navajo Myth and relates it with other aspects of stories from other traditions. This helps the readers better understand the myth across cultures and times. Worth noting, the text “Where the Two Came to their Father” is a war ceremonial that tells the tale of two young men who are heroes. They two go to the Sun, the Hogan of their father and after a while, they come back bearing strength to destroy the monsters disrupting the peace of their people.

Analysis of Call to Adventure and the Return as the Two Stages of Heros in “Where the Two Came to their Father”

The Navaho legend in “Where the Two Came to their Father” passed through all the stages that Campbell defines as his steps of a hero’s journey. Particularly, they encountered the call to adventure and the return stage. The Navaho people are plagued by monsters in their community. The first step, namely call to adventure is depicted in how the hero notices an interruption in the lives of the community people. The problem is dire and they cannot ignore it because the security of the people is at stake. At this point, they decide to act upon it by going to war with the enemies to resolve the matter once and for all. They hold a two-day ceremony before the Navajo legend sets out to war. The ceremony includes elaborate sand paintings and songs meant to keep the souls of the soldiers healthy as they go away from their land and their loved ones to new territories to fight. Williams (72) writes, “it is the nature of monsterdom to mistake the reflection for the thing. Displaced emphasis is the very sense of the monster’s life.” This points to the existence of evil that poses a challenge to the people. It ignites a spark in the heroes to want to leave and fix the problem so that people can feel safe. This is what Campbell refers to as a monster. The other stage, the return is marked with how the legend comes back home from the war bearing extreme power to destroy the monsters that have been terrorizing the people. The goal of the legend’s return was the pilgrimage to the house of strength.

Conclusion

In closing, Campbell demonstrates the stages of a hero’s journey in “Where the Two Came to their Father” in various ways. As highlighted in this text, the Navaho legend goes through the call of adventure after they realize that their community is not safe from attack by monsters. This pushes the legend to want to do something about it. A blessing ceremony is held before they head into battle. The purpose of the ceremony is to protect their souls from harm during war. Upon their return, they come with renewed strength to destroy the monsters plaguing the lives of the Navaho people.

References

Bronzite, Dan. “The hero’s journey–Mythic structure of Joseph Campbell’s Monomyth.” Retrieved on February 1 (2018).

Williams, Clive. “The hero’s journey: a mudmap to wellbeing.” Heroism and Wellbeing in the 21st Century. Routledge, 2018. 72-85.

The Sons of Liberty and Their Effects on American Revolution

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The American revolution was more of an evolution than a revolution since many changes were brought up by the revolution. The revolution was the most successful since the thirteen British colonists fought had and they managed to defeat the British. A contributing factor to the success of the revolution was a group known as sons of liberty. The Sons of Liberty was a group of men founded in August 1765. It started in Boston, Massachusetts, as a secret group that fought over the high British taxation and aimed at advancing the rights of the thirteen European colonies. This was a political, patriot and preliminary organization . The paper will focus on discussing the sons of liberty and their effect on the American revolution since it was formed during the time of the revolution and had a significant impact on Americans winning the revolution.

On March 22nd, 1765 the Stamp Act was passed by the British parliament. The stamp act imposed taxes on the Americans where on every piece of paper used they were supposed to pay taxes. Among the things that were taxed included, playing cards, shipment papers, licenses and any newspaper that was published by the Americans. The British considered this as a small tax, but to the Americans, this was offensive since it was an indirect way of stealing from them. Even though the act did not come to pass till November, the colonist was not happy and reacted with the immediate announcement of the tax imposition Act . Imposing this taxes meant that the lives of Americans were going to be hard thus the men formed an organization called the Sons of Liberty later in the year to help fight these issues. The stamp act was not going to benefit the country, but instead, it was going to help the British government raise funds to support their army during the American revolution.

The emotions and reactions from the Americans and the need to counter the act best explain how The Sons of Liberty started. Among the groupings of the sons of liberty was the loyal nine which comprised of the American elites. Among the elites includes John Smith, Joseph Fidel, and Samuel Adams. The Loyal Nine played a role in setting goals and limits of the riots and placed boundaries on riots and how effective they will be . The loyal Nine are greatly remembered for causing chaos at the Boston tea party where the threw Chests of tea that belonged to the British into the harbor and later celebrated it. The Name Sons of Liberty does not imply that the members and participants in this group were only men but also women and children. The founders of the organization were mostly the wealthy men from America. An example being Paul Revere who was an engraver, an industrialist and a silversmith. It is believed that smaller groups such as the Loyal Nine and Boston Caucus were among the smaller patriotic organizations formed early and later joined to the big group, Sons of Liberty.

In their fight towards the discriminatory rule of the British colonial government, the Sons of Liberty used different tactics for different events. Among the tactics used included; Mob rule where a good example is after the organization’s members met under a tree in Boston they decided to storm Oliver Andrew’s office and his home . The mob was comprising more than a thousand men and women who were angry about the tax rule and since Andrew Oliver was a British Tax agent then the reason for attacking him. Also, they used tactics of scaring the British agents away; they also used violence for example feathering and tar, gunshots, pilling of stocks and used gun power to resist the British acts of discrimination. The Sons of Liberty successfully undermined the British rule and their events as explained bellow affected the American revolution.

If you were a resident in Boston, then to know that there was a meeting with the sons of liberty then you would see flags hanged on post thus the next day there was going to be a meeting under the tree at Boston. Since it was an underground operation, then only members would understand what the flag on the tree implied but not the British officials since the meetings were aimed at ending their unfair rule. The Sons of Liberty were well organized, and on every instance of protests majority would come out to counter the British government. Sons of Liberty was among the most patriotic groups during the American Revolution, and the members were loyal to the rules and at no instance was there a report of someone leaking the organization’s information to the British officials .

On the case of Andrew Oliver, the angry patriots paraded him on the streets and made him swear an oath that he will not support and take part in the British taxation any more. Earlier on the same day, the mob rule had stomped on, beheaded and set the effigy on fire as a result of being hungry before they proceeded to Oliver’s house. What transpired in Oliver’s home did scare him, and on August 17th Oliver decided to resign. This created fear on other British officials for they now knew what the Sons of Liberty were capable of thus some were reluctant to collect the taxes.

The Boston Tea Party.

The Sons of Liberty are greatly remembered for the protests at Boston in December 16th, 1773. The sons of Liberty were angry at a series of acts which the British had imposed on American colonist thus decided to revolt. Boston was among the most extensive and busiest harbor for the British activities. At Griffins Warf, the angry American patriots boarded the ships at the port decided to dump 352 chests of tea into the water . This was the among the major acts that would show the British that the Americans were not happy with their rule and enacting laws without representation from the thirteen colonies. According to George Hews, he tells us that there were British army ships that surrounded them but not made an effort of attacking them. They watched as the tea thoroughly get exposed to the water . Only one of them was arrested and sent to prison the rest managed to get away due to the American costumes.

The Sons of Liberty did not hurt anyone except the tea; it was reported that after disposing the tea into the after they went ahead and swept the ship. Despite hurting none, King George II was answerable to the British parliament. The event led to the Coercive Act which was intended to stop the rebellion and cause disunity among the colonies which failed. Among the provisions of the act were; the Boston harbor was to be closed until the tea that was lost in the tea party was paid . The Massachusetts constitution and free elections of town officials came to an end. These were some of the provisions which were intolerable and led to the Second Tea Party. In March 1974, The sons of Liberty were disappointed with the coercive acts and thus around sixty members decided to Board one of the British ships called fortune and threw thirty chests of tea into the water. The event was named the second Boston tea party. As a result of the event, many tea dumping followed in the other colonies that are, in South Carolina, New York, and Maryland. The second tea party was not noticed as the first one was.

The first continental congress was convened with elected members from each colonist where they developed ways to counter the British government rule. The Boston tea party had united the thirteen colonists since before they were dived on how to move forward . The congress resolved to agreements such as; boycotting the British goods, called for the repeal of the Coercive Acts and also did declare that the colonists had the right to be governed independently. Britain was reluctant to respond, and after a few months, the Americans could not tolerate any more thus the beginning of the American revolutionary war in 1775 .

From the reaction of the Sons of Liberty then the events followed sparked the American Revolution thus we can say they caused underlying causes of the revolution through the Boston tea party.

End of stamp duty act

The stamp duty act which was aimed at collecting funds for England demanded that for one to pay the stamp tax, it will be through only with British currency that is silver or gold. If you did not have silver or gold, you needed to trade to attain it. The Sons of Liberty did not rest till the British government placed an end to this rule . One achievement that the Sons of Liberty as a result of their protests was the British Parliament finally ended the stamp duty act which then the Americans free form this discriminatory taxes imposed on them. Since their primary purpose was to end the Stamp Act by forcing tax collectors to resign for example the case of Andrew Oliver, and Americans to stop ordering British goods, then they did accomplish it . As a result of achieving their goals then it was the right time to dissolve the movement. In the year 1776 after the Sons of Liberty disolved the group after their motto of “no representation no taxation” was almost achievable since there was no more taxation.

Effects of Sons of Liberty on American Revolutionary War

Even though the group had been dissolved, it left a great impact on the Americans who were now fighting the revolutionary war. The Americans were able to get united starting from the Boston Tea Party, and even members from the thirteen colonies joined the Sons of Liberty movement. A good example is a Congress that was established where 13 members from the colonies came together to write down their demands to the British government. Unity was also created among the thirteen American colonies where they fought together with the war and could help King George II to get men to recruit in his army to fight the revolutionary war . Perhaps the men learned that the togetherness that the Sons of Liberty had was fruitful.

The Sons of liberty helped to strengthen the Americans who fought the war, where from the tactics they used the American troops could employ some when attacking the British army. Perhaps since after ten years is when the British decide to end the stamp duty act thus the men who fought the army were encouraged not to back off since one day they will win against the British government . We are aware that the revolutionary war lasted for a very long period despite the British army being stronger than America’s. The Americans were patient enough to fight to see the British government loose. The revolutionary war just began at the end of 1775, and this was the time American rebels had started to act on British soldiers at Concord and Lexington, Massachusetts. The war became a long battle for Americans and George Washington, and at long last, they won.

The Sons of Liberty did create fear among the British officials. Before the movement was dissolved, many British officials had resigned as a result of their torture and mob. At the start of the year 1776, there was chaos caused by the Sons of Liberty which caused the royal governors to go into hiding. The loyal governors depended on the militia and sheriffs to protect them from the violent Sons of liberty, but this could not happen since the same sheriffs were members of the group and were so loyal to sell them out . During the time the British governors were so afraid to open the stores containing weapons since the Sons of Liberty could abruptly come and loot them. Probably the British government was now aware of what the Americans were capable of this during the revolutionary war they had to be much more prepared since the Sons of Liberty had managed to remove nearly all governors in the thirteen colonies thus they were strong enough.

Lastly, we can see the Sons of Liberty played a significant role toward the Americans winning the revolutionary war, gaining independence and even the establishment of a fair constitution. A good constitution can be explained by battling the unfair Acts which would then not be included in the articles of confederation. The Sons of Liberty helped the Americans in gaining their sense of nationalism and realize that the British government was depriving them their right . Through collaboration among the colonies during the time of sons of liberty came to be what strengthen them in the later years of the revolution. Lastly, the Sons of Liberty demand for independence brought the thirteen colonies together, and that is what we see today as the United States . The Sons of Liberty is remembered today as one of the successful movements during the American revolution.

Bibliography

Bush, Elizabeth. “The Sons of Liberty.” Bulletin of the Center for Children’s Books 63, no. 10 (2010): 443-444.

Carp, Benjamin L. Defiance of the patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the making of America. Yale University Press, 2010.

Champagne, Roger J. The Sons of Liberty and the aristocracy in New York politics, 1765-1790. Vol. 2. University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1960.

Countryman, Edward. A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760-1790. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.

Countryman, Edward. A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760-1790. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.

Morgan, Edmund Sears, and Helen M. Morgan. The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution. UNC Press Books, 1953.

Schlesinger, Arthur M. “The colonial newspapers and the Stamp Act.” The New England Quarterly 8, no. 1 (1935): 63-83.

Wood, Gordon S. “A Note on Mobs in the American Revolution.” The William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History and Culture (1966): 635-642.

Starbucks Corporation

Name

Institution

The Starbucks Company

Research and Development

Starbucks is an international retail company that sells quality coffee and baked products to customers around the globe. The company has numerous stores around the world indicating that they serve a lot of customers on a daily basis. The company’s current research and development objectives, strategies, policies and programs are clearly stated to help them focus on their goals and mission. These strategies are meant to enhance growth and development, and they are vital in achieving organization sustainability. They are consistent with the corporation’s purpose, objective, procedures, policies and with internal and external environments to make sure that the company is responsive to emerging market trends. Starbucks has managed to incorporate technology to enhance and increase its corporate performance. Technology has been used to utilize opportunities and has enhanced efficiency and effectiveness thus improving operations helping the company to gain a higher competitive advantage.

The use of technology by Starbucks has helped the organization to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage, and corporate performance can be measured using the enterprise resource planning. The mix of basic, applied, and engineering research is appropriate for the company given the organizational mission and strategies. Starbucks has a clearly stated purpose and stipulated objectives and this mix would equip them to deliver quality goods and services to their esteemed customers worldwide. The combination is essential because it allows them to adapt to the emerging market trends that are changing as population increases. Furthermore, the mix of basic, applied, and engineering research motivates employees, and it facilitates the growth and development of specific skills and abilities. This means that the combination would be appropriate for the company to increase their level of global competitiveness to outcompete their industry rivals. This will be beneficial because they will produce quality goods and services that will spur customer satisfaction and loyalty.

Starbucks has invested heavily in research and development. As a result, this has increased its global competitive advantage, increased its customer based, enhanced customer loyalty and satisfaction, and all this has resulted in the economic growth and development of Starbucks. They have managed to produce products and services of high quality giving them an upper hand in the competitive markets. The company is using value chain alliances appropriately for innovation and competitive advantage. Starbucks has developed a strategic value chain that has allowed them to be competent because it has facilitated new changes that provide them with new products that are in line with the customer needs. This has helped them to achieve customer satisfaction and loyalty where they have managed to increase their level of global competitiveness. They have opened many stores across the globe to help them reach their customers at ease to dominate different markets.

Research and development in Starbucks adjust to the varying conditions in each country in which they operate. This has allowed them to adapt to different market conditions which vary from one state to another. This has helped them to dominate in their industry because they are responsive and can adjust to market conditions as per the rules and regulations of foreign investments. In Starbucks, the environment is considered because their research and development have allowed them to create and develop quality goods that are environmentally-friendly. They have initiated a green business where they consider environmental sustainability in product development, packaging and distribution.

Information Technology

Starbucks’s IT mission and objective is to promote as well as advertise the company’s use of ethically sourced goods or products to their global consumers and indicate that they are environmentally aware by reminding consumers that their products are environmentally friendly. The corporation’s current IT objectives and strategies are aimed at improving service delivery and the production of quality products. Furthermore, their IT policies are meant to facilitate innovations and market the company to gain more reliable and loyal customers. Their IT department has also played a significant role in the creation of a strong and global brand and image that has increased their bargaining power in the competitive industry. The company’s IT strategies are based on the corporation’s goals and objectives, and they focus on facilitating the growth and development of Starbucks corporation. This has been a significant factor that has led to their success, and it has improved the company’s position in the global retail market amid changing market conditions.

Starbucks’ IT is performing efficiently because their experts are helping the managers to make the right routine decisions by providing them with the essential information necessary for strategic choices. The IT department has managed to acquire essential data necessary for the corporation’s operations as they have come up with target market maps that help managers to identify the appropriate areas to operate considering the target audience of their products and services. The organization’s IT performance and stage of development are comparable to no other industry rival because the IT managers have initiated the efficient and most effective strategies in their operations to help the company to adapt to market conditions, consumer trends, as well as industry competition. This has improved their ability to respond to global trends, and they have increased operations because the IT managers have obtained, analyzed, and processed crucial information for the company to identify potential threats and use the strengths to utilize the various opportunities that emerge in the course of business. This has facilitated their success and growth because they have used strategic measures to ascertain that they are competitive.

The IT managers at Starbucks are using appropriate concepts and techniques to evaluate and improve corporate performance. They regularly conduct system analyses to guarantee that the company is operating as required. Furthermore, the IT managers have tried to implement interactive decision-making systems where they have involved the customers helping them build a customer-company relationship where customers give their reviews and comments on their goods and services. This has enabled them to serve more customers and better based on their needs. The IT experts have succeeded to manage complex databases because the company operates in different countries and has built numerous stores in nations they maneuver. Currently, the corporation has a significant IT and Internet presence that has been associated with the competence of the IT managers. On the internet, they have uniquely marketed the company and this strategy has assisted them to attract more customers from different backgrounds. Thus, they have increased their customer base, and this has helped them to succeed and become competitive globally. The primary role of the IT managers is to monitor and oversee the expansion and maintenance of the company’s IT strategic plan. This allows them to coordinate primacies between their department and other user departments within the organization. IT managers are crucial figures because they are involved in planning, justification of performance, and evaluation of the company’s progress towards achieving the postulated goals and objectives.

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A Response to Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi

Basically a presentation of her early childhood as she lived in her country Iran, Persepolis comes out as one of the most captivating narrations of the tragedies as well as the activities that beheld the lives of Iranians in Marjane’s years six to fourteen. It is in this period that the Shah’s regime in Iran is overthrown and the Islamic Revolution occurs. Again, Satrapi narrates the daunting effects of the Iranian Iraqi War of this time.

Narrated from a child’s perspective, Persepolis not only brings out the ingenious in Marjane to relay events in their true form of reality but also the reality of the impact of each event in her life and the lives of others. A quick cross from 1979 and 1980 indicates the occurrence of The Islamic Revolution and the subsequent compulsory wearing of the veil. She reveals the transformation from French schools and their closure as signs of capitalism; an overall process named Cultural Revolution. While this takes place, there is internal protest against the veils, yet the revelation of a controversially oppressed society cannot be skipped as her mother hides in dyed hair and glasses because of being on the papers for demonstrating.

In an intertwined narration, Marjane reveals in Persepolis; a considerable memoir. It begins with an outline of Iranian history that sets the stage for the book. While she clearly presents the search for identity and the oppressed position of the woman in her society, she paradoxically juxtaposes the loyalty and dependability of her people to their culture and state. Yet she emerges as an individual whose faith ceases to base itself on religion but rather on political ideology making her a recognizable protagonist.

In essence, Marjane intriguingly outlines the revolution and other events and their effects in a unique and outstanding way. This makes her text a ‘must read’ for students and scholars studying The Islamic Revolution, its effects and the history of Iran in her time.

Work Cited

Satrapi, Marjane. Persepolis. London: J. Cape, 2006. Print.