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Motivational Interview

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u The five stages of change PAGEREF _Toc378595597 h 1The five techniques of motivational interviewing PAGEREF _Toc378595598 h 2The five core components of motivational interviewing PAGEREF _Toc378595599 h 2

Motivation is the change of one’s attitude and character through the introduction of positive reinforcement. There are several methods of motivating people depending on the situation at hand. Motivational interview involves enhancing motivation using different stages and techniques so as to yield alternative results (Miller & Rollnick, 2002).

The five stages of change

The five stages of motivation seek to conceptualize a situation by recognizing a problem and offering a method of change. The change in this case should affect their approach on the condition that makes them behave in a certain way. The first stage is known as in the pre contemplation stage. Offenders in this stage seek to defend their behavior. This defensive nature is triggered by the pressure to change from either family, friends or professionals. Despite the evidence of denial in the behavior of the patient, the patient recognizes that he or she has a problem. It takes time for the offender to admit the existence of the problem thus the phrase pre contemplation. The second stage is the contemplation phase. The offender in this is ready to admit the existence of an underlying problem. Most people in this stage are tasked with weighing the merits and demerits of the result of their change. The third stage is the preparation or determination change. This is a crucial stage in the life of an offender. People in this stage display signs of change in that their actions are different from their normal behavior. The fourth stage is the action or willpower stage. During this stage, people make the declaration of the need to change. A person has to develop the willpower that helps them overcome the internal and external pressure. The final stage is the fifth stage which involves maintaining of the set goals and objectives (Rosengren, 2009).

The five techniques of motivational interviewingAs stated earlier, there are five techniques of motivational interviewing. The first principle is the expression of empathy. This involves identifying with the situation that that a patient or offender is experiencing. The second principle involves developing discrepancy by ensuring consistency when applying the agents of change. The third principle entails avoiding of arguments by maintaining a positive attitude towards the change process. The fourth principle is the maintenance of resistance in the case of the introduction of any negative change. The fifth principle is the support of self efficacy. This involves adopting efficiency in all aspects of the change process (Miller & Rollnick, 2002

The five core components of motivational interviewing

The five core principles of motivational interviewing are essential for the success of a person. The first the core principle is the use of counselor style motivating. The second technique is the introduction of positive therapeutic influence in the life of the patient. The third technique is the introduction of a comfortable environment to improve the cooperation of the patient. The fourth component of motivation is the adaptation of group therapy. This allows for a person to experience change through the help of their peers. The final component is the use of reflection to fight any form of influence. This makes the patient derive strength from the negative aspect of their previous life (Rosengren, 2009).

Conclusion

Motivation interviews are essential for enhancing behavioral change. This change is positive in nature and is thus ideal for the improvement of the society. The various motivational techniques ensure that change occurs effectively. It is thus ideal to adopt motivational change techniques as a form of eradication various forms of behavior.

References

Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change. New York: Guilford Press.

Rosengren, D. B. (2009). Building motivational interviewing skills: A practitioner workbook. New York: Guilford Press.

Adult Learning Theories Using Theorist Knowles & Dewey, John Dewey: The later works 1938—1939, Vol. 13 (pp. 1—62). Carbondale, IL: SIU Press.

Over half a century ago, Dewey (1938) expressed the belief that all genuine education comes through experience (Dewey 1938). Since then, many educators have struggled with the complex implications of that simply stated notion. Recognizing its complexity, Dewey advised using those cases in which we find there is a real development of desirable [experiences] and to find out how this development took place (p. 4) and using this new understanding to guide our efforts at teaching and learning.

The notion of inquiry appears in many places in Dewey’s work, though he began to refer to it using that term only in his later writings. In Experience and Education (1939/1991), Dewey wrote, “the immediate and direct concern of an educator is … with the situations in which interaction takes place” (Dewey 1938)

Dewey writes of a “new education,” wherein, rather than learning from “texts and teachers,” students learn from experience and there is “active participation by the students in the development of what is taught.” Dewey argues that this model breaks down the barrier between school and the rest of a student’s life, making a more fluid usefulness of knowledge gained in and outside of school. It only seems logical that students will invest more in knowledge that they have created themselves and can share with others in many areas of life. It gives the students the chance to become both teacher and learner.

Preparing for full lives as citizens and individuals; embedding inclusion, teamwork, creativity and innovation and to live rich and fulfilling lives as citizens and individuals, learners must be prepared for and have access to choices that affect their futures. But the purpose for learning does not lie only in the future; skills, knowledge, and experiences must have meaning in the present, too. Dewey believed skills must be useful in the here and now (Dewey 1938) Knowles, M. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Englewood Cliffs: Cambridge.

The theory of andragogy was defined by Malcolm Knowles, who often has been referred to as the “father of andragogy.” He was one of the world’s leaders in the area of adult education.

The andragogical model designed by Knowles is based on several important assumptions including the need to know: Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it, the learner’s self-concept: Adults have a self-concept that includes being responsible for their own decision, for their own lives, The role of the learners’ experiences: Adults come into the educational arena with both a greater volume and a different quality of experience than youth. This difference in quantity and quality of experience has several consequences for adult education that must be considered. This also means that adult learners, themselves, contribute rich resources to the learning process,

Knowles (1970), in his theory of adult learning, differentiates the way adults learn from the way children learn. These differences are stated as follows:

• Adults are autonomous and self-directed;

• Adults are problem centered (they need to understand the ‘Why’ behind the need to learn);

• Adults are practical and are problem-solvers, and

• Adults have accumulated significant life experiences.

Based on these differences, trainers need to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Presentation strategies such as case studies, role-playing, and simulations tend to be most effective. Teachers should facilitate those modalities rather than lecture.

The Readiness to learn: Adults come ready to learn the things they need to in order to better cope with real life experiences. The teacher needs to respond to this need by exposing students to models of superior performance, career counseling, simulation exercises, and other techniques, Orientation to learning: In contrast to children’s and youth’s subject-centered orientation to learning, adults are life-centered in their orientation to learning. They learn new knowledge, understandings, skills, values, and attitudes most effectively when they are presented in the context of applicability to real-life situations and the motivation: While adults are responsive to some external motivators, the most potent motivators are internal pressures, like the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life.

Bibliography:

Dewey, J. (1939/1991). Experience and education. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.).

Katherine H. Murray Frommelt, 2000, Non-Traditional Student’s Response to Graduate education.

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CENTRAL CLAIM: FEMINISM IN OTHHELLO.

Othello was written at a period shaped by complex social and geopolitical issues. This article seeks to unravel the feminism and the feminist characters in Othello. The play is multifaceted and in that historic context it still speaks to audiences today in a dynamic and a legit way. William Shakespeare’s Othello gives a provision of understanding it from a feminist perspective. A critical feminist analysis of the play Othello has given us a solid and a definite judgement of the different central social values of women seen taking center stage during the Elizabethan society. During that period and time, the society was patriarchal and the women in the society were expected to be timid and fearful and to serve their male counterparts. Their voices were not heard and they had to device survival mechanisms. Women were thought to be physiological and psychologically inferior to men.

There are three women in Othello: Desdemona, Emilia and Bianca. From how the women behave in the play there are a clear indication of what the society was like at that time. In general, the paper will analyze how the women behaved and the feminism lens of that Elizabethan period. In my opinion from how the women in play behaved, it is a clear indication of what the society was like at that moment. In the play women are seen as possession, they are owned by their husbands and cannot make decisions of their own. It is also evident that the women were purchased through, marriage and now they live a; life that according to the men, they are to now pay back by their service in marriage and ensuring the man is satisfied.

Desdemona, is a victim of a society that places the value of women in their marital status. It is crystal clear that she is a virtuous woman however, the character traits displayed by Shakespeare in describing her echo a patriarchal society. Desdemona is portrayed as a “submissive”, “loyal” and “innocent”. Female submission, loyalty and innocence have always been a bone of contention for the feminist woman. These are all traits rooted in religious teachings but acted out in reality as a form of oppression to females. Submission instills some sense of inferiority to the woman while giving the male power to act with authority. Desdemona goes from being under the domination of her father to that of her husband, Othello. In the end, her loyalty and innocence costs her peace of mind, happiness and her life.

When her marriage to Othello is threatened, Desdemona is placed on the defensive side to prove her innocence with their husband’s opinions, although baseless, always triumphing. This is in line with the patriarchal view that a man’s opinions and decisions are final. This in conjunction with Desdemona’s view of her marriage as her source of prestige and status in her society place her in a position where she has no option but to defend her marriage because leaving it would be detrimental to her social status. (Massie,2017)

Her lowly status in society puts her in jeopardy when Lago aims to destroy her marriage. She is not in any position of power to deflect nor defend herself from Lago’s claims, Desdemona seems to have some form of social support structure as she tells a friend of the woes of her marriage. Nevertheless, this is not enough to fight off Othello’s decision due to his broken trust and fear of his reputation.

To conclude what has already been stated, feminism in Othello is alive and demonstrates that women have been struggling in a male dominated society. They have had to break barriers and to swim through very stormy seas to ensure they are valued and seen for who they really are not just vessels of pleasure.

Works Cited.

Massie, Elizabeth. “A Feminist Critique of Othello.” Pentangle’s History (2017): 29.

Pender, Carson. ““The Fruits Are to Ensue”: Male Dominance and Female Desirability in William Shakespeare’s Othello.” (2018).

Diploma in Dental Hygiene and Therapy

November 2013

Adult Therapy Presentation Case ReportCandidate Number:68

Diagnosis:dental caries

Date Treatment Commenced:21st May 2013

Date Treatment Completed:18th September 2013

Patient’s details

Gender:female

Age:40yrs

Occupation:

Referred by:Professor P Preshaw

Background history

This patient was referred by his general dental practitioner to professor Preshaw’s consultant clinic at the Newcastle dental hospital regarding her periodontal condition. GDP tried routine scaling and OHI, yet there has been no change

The patient was examined on professor Preshaw’s clinic and patient was then referred to myself for treatment of dental caries and generalised mild chronic periodontitis.

Restorative history

She is a regular attender to GDP every 6-12 months. She has been attending scale appointments for 30minutes, without LA; 31 is root filled with composite.

Presenting complaint

Patient noticed bleeding upon brushing, but other than that she did not have any concerns.

Medical history

Patient is fit and well

Social history

None smoker and drinks about 3 units per week

Oral hygiene habits

Patient brushes twice a day with an electric tooth brush and also reports using bottle brushes once per day

Basic Periodontal Examination

3 1 4

2 2 3

Examination

Minimal soft deposits present, generalised extensive hard deposits present, caries present on 16, 26, 27, 28, 46

Treatment plan

caries management 16, 26, 27, 28, 46

plaque score

full periodontal indices

course of RSI on pockets of 4mm+ with LA

OHI basis technique and interdental cleaning

Bitewings to confirm caries 46

Radiographic report: (DPT/OPG and bitewings)

View: DPT/OPG

Quality: Grade 1

18 17 16   14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24   26 27  28

47 46   44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34   36 37 38

Teeth present:

Unerupted: 48 horizontal impacted

Restorations: 36m, 31 lingual

Root filled: 31

Horizontal bone loss: 20-30%

Calculus present: 18d, 17dm, 16m, 26dm, 28d, 44d, 46m, 36m, 37dm

Radiographic report: (bitewing)

View: bitewing

Quality: grade 1 and 2

18 17 16   14 13           24   26 27  

47 46                 34   36 37 38

Teeth present on radiograph:

Restorations: 36m

Crestal bone loss: 10-15%

Overerrupted: 17

Caries into dentine: 16, 26, 27, 28, 46o

Treatment visits: (verbal consent was gained from patient and medical history was checked, with no changes throughout)

Visit 1: 21/05/13

Explained to patient that the treatment was to be carried out over several visits. Verbal Consent gained from patient for photographs and the use of the treatment carried out as my case study.

intra oral exam was undertaken

PPD’s under taken

recession and mobility completed

Plaque score completed 39%

OHI given, electric tooth brushing instructions given and introduced bottle brushes green, purple and red

Visit 2: 11/06/13

Pre-treatment photos taken with patient’s consent

bitewings taken

plaque score 29%

re-enforced OHI

Visit 3: 09/07/13

Buccal infiltration administered to 26, 27, 28 with epinephrine 1:80, 000 2,2ml

Access gained with high speed and round heard diamond bur

Caries removed on 26, 27, 28

26 and 27 filled with composite a1 shade and occlusion checked

28 filled with amalgam and calcium hydroxide placed before the restoration as filling was deep

Post ope given and patient warned about 28 being deep and might be sensitive to hot and cold

Visit 4 :10/09/13

46 and 16 caries removed without LA as patient requested to try without LA first and if needed she would let me know and it was not required at this time

46 setting calcium hydroxide placed before amalgam

16 was filled with composite a1 shade

occlusion checked for both dentations

gross scale lower arch

introduced single tufted brush and re-enforced OHI

diet sheet given

Visit 5: 18/09/13

plaque score 17%

vitality test done on the 28 and it gave positive response

localised RSI completed on pockets greater than 4mm without LA as patient declined LA

Full mouth fine scale

reviewed bottle brushes

re- enforced OHI

diet analysis carried out and diet advice given

Maintenance phase patient to be reviewed every 3months, for 6months on her periodontal condition

Reflection

One of my concerns, while treating this patient, was the fact that the patient did not seem to have any concerns about her teeth and she also didn’t seem to understand why she had been referred to professor Preshaw’s clinic by her GDP as she said her teeth didn’t bother her that much other than a little bit of bleeding upon brushing occasionally. Going by this, it made me assume that patient might not be ready to make any changes.

Yet, this turned out to be a mistake, because patient seemed very open to change. So even though, as a health care professional I am to understand that not everybody is ready for a change and I have to respect patient’s wishes, it would be wrong to rash to conclusions based on other observations than the one done by myself.

When I met the patient, she was very interested in what I was advising her and she was open to making changes. This taught me that I should not just read the letters and the notes and assume that patient might not be ready for a change. This also made me think about the methods of identifying patients that are ready for change and the ones that are not. Never take patients at face value, but always observe them and communicate with them in order to find out their inner concerns.

Another thing that I realised while treating this patient, was that sometimes when you are looking at the carious teeth on the radiograph, you cannot predict how deep the lesions are, before carrying out treatment; I always told myself that the lesions are not that deep, only to find them deeper than what I actually anticipated.

Overall I am quite pleased with the outcome of the treatment and patient was happy with the results.

Psychology:

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Introduction

Motivation is the application of a positive factor so as to get a positive result form an individual. All people are prone to undergo a stressful period where they need a push to the next level. This push determines the success or failure of the receiver of the motivational instrument. The theories of motivation were introduced to the world though psychologists such as Abraham Maslow, Sigmund Freud, Fredrick Herzberg and Fredrick Taylor (Miner, 2008). These psychologists spent the better part of their career coming up with the theories. There are several theories of motivation that can be applied to motivate a person in different situations. The application of these theories is essential to the sustainability of the success of the future generation. Being an aspiring psychologist, I have received motivation from different people. These people have direct or indirect contact with me. This showcases motivation as a factor that does not have boundaries. Motivation has been a vital part of my life from the early stages of my life to my current point in life. Some of these influences are unconscious sources or conscious. Unconscious motivation plays a significant role due to the manifestation that it encourages. These motivational theories are have impacted significantly on my choice to pursue psychology as my career. The analysis of motivational influences is thus ideal in that it showcases the reasons for my actions in the past and present day (Beck, 2004).

The focus of this paper is to provide an analysis of motivational theories in psychology. The paper uses examples of psychologists such as Maslow by providing their take on motivation influences. The paper uses this information to explain what motivates me to take on psychology as a career. The paper finally offers a concluding paragraph that summarizes its contents.

Motivation involves encouraging an individual to pursue a certain goal or objective. The fulfillment of this objective acts as a source of happiness and achievement which in turn adds meaning to a person’s life. A person can be motivated consciously or unconsciously depending on their surrounding environments. Most individuals are influenced at an early stage in their life making this a crucial time of there. Motivation entails using the positive aspects in the environment so as to derive a positive result. There are different types of motivational method that are classified into theories. These theories are used to date by the general public in various industries making them an essential aspect in the world of psychology (Beck, 2004).

Theories of motivation

Motivational theories are theories that explain different motivational techniques and their role in the influencing of behavior. There are several motivational theories that exist in present day. These theories are inspired by different situations and thus reflect on different individuals. One of the psychologists who has played a significant role in the determining these theories is Abraham Maslow (Beck, 2004).

Maslow is known for his motivational theory that talks on the hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, human beings are motivated by items that they do not have direct possession or contact. These needs are not satisfied due to a variety of features that are determined by the internal and external environment (Miner, 2008). The hierarchy in this case consists of needs and wants that human beings experience at one point in their life. The first category consists of physiological needs; these needs consist of basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing and education. These needs are essential for the proper growth and development of all the human beings. Lack of physiological needs creates a vacuum that puts a strain on their progress of an individual’s life. People who experience this situation rely on factors such as family, friends and faith so that they can improve their life (Miner, 2008).

Exposure to these needs is ideal in that it improves the self worth of an individual. People who fall under this category are said to be less fortunate in that they lack the essential resources to ease their life. The second category in the pyramid is the safety needs; safety needs comprise of security in all aspects of life. Beings able to live in a safe environment increase the confidence of a person. Safety creates the provision for investment which in turn, yields more progress in the life. The third stage is social needs; social needs comprise of family, friends, social status, and lifestyle. This stage is a pivotal part of life due to the aspect of communication. People strive to perfect their social needs so that they can elevate their position in life (Miner, 2008). This stage is also significant because people need comfort from their friends and family when experiencing different hardships. The fourth stage is the esteem needs; these needs are essential due to the fact that they help human beings accomplish the goals and objectives they have. Self esteem is ideal for the success of any person. Self esteem is initiated right from the time of an individual’s childhood. Through self esteem a person is able to control all the challenges that come with life. Lack of self esteem reduces the motivation of an individual making it harder for them to survive in life. This stage is required to go through all the stages in life with ease. The last and final stage is self actualization; self actualization is a state of superiority. At this stage an individual has achieved all the objectives that they have set. These objectives constitute to the overall happiness and success of a human being (Beck, 2004).

Very few people manage to reach the self actualization stage. Belonging to a certain stage determines the amount of motivation one has. If a person is born into a family that does not have a lot in terms of financial resources, they are likely to work harder so that they can fill this vacuum. This situation can however take a different turn in that some people may accept their state and choose not to improve it. Motivation involves adding a positive factor to the life of a person so that they can use it to improve on their situation. The lack of a certain commodity influences a person to strive so that they can acquire the commodity. This is brought about by manifesting in an item until one achieves their goal or objective (Miner, 2008).

A close look at Maslow’s theory of motivation indicates that he is one of the sources of inspiration for my choice of psychology as a subject. The theory mentions that a person cannot be motivated if they do not have a motivating factor. This simply means that an individual has to have something that to look forward to before they can set their goal (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). The United States has the most successful economy in the world. Despite this, the country is experiencing high levels of poverty due to the rate of employment. Over fifty percent of the economies population is living on government welfare and do not have an adequate healthcare plan. These statistics display that the economy is not in a good place. The fact that a country like the United States is not able to provide for its citizens adequate living standards increases the rate of uncertainty of the future generation (Hoffmann, 2007).

As a young member of the population, it is essential for me to get an education so that I can compete with the more than capable job seekers. My choice get a college degree is thus motivated by the fact that a college education is essential for the sustainability of the society. My choice to take on psychology as a major as opposed to engineering or education is determined by the social ills that occur in today’s society. Today’s society cannot be compared with the society that the older generation grew up. The rate of insecurity, evil and poverty continues to increase on a daily basis. Majority of the crimes that are committed are as a result of people who are mentally or emotionally scared. One of the ways that people can make the country safer to live in is by investing in careers that eradicate these occurrences. Psychology is a significant contributor in the safety of the community due to the ability to communicate with social deviants (Hoffmann, 2007). Some of the most disturbing cases committed in the country over the years have been solved with the aid of psychologists. Having psychology as my major is not only a personal objective but a community objective. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, each individual is placed in one of the categories of the pyramid (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). As a student, there are some achievements that I am yet to achieve in the future. This places me in the fourth and fifth category because achieving my dream would be a driving force for the start of my career. The ability to kick start my career will validate my existence in the self actualization stage. This is due to the satisfaction that comes with the achievement of my goal. The probability of having a positive future without a college education is low. The fact that I am yet to achieve a degree motivates me to work hard so that I can graduate. This is reflective of Maslow’s theory that states that the lack of a commodity makes a person motivated to work toward achieving that goal (Miner, 2008).

As stated earlier, motivation is influenced unconsciously and consciously by the surrounding environment. One of the factors that the society continues to face is the high rate of divorce. This is created by the change of the society in terms of social roles, education and globalization. One does not have to be a product of a broken home to experience the impact it has on children. Being a physiologist is ideal in that it a person identifies with children who are having hard times coping with divorce. This is source of motivation is unconscious in that there is not particular person that has geared me towards helping such children. The events in the society make me want to take a stand so that I can be of help to people who are in need (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006).

Motivation starts at an early stage; most of the individuals derive motivation without even being aware. This is known as unconscious motivation due to the lack of knowledge of the impact of a positive factor. One of the physiologists who placed emphasis on unconscious motivation is Sigmund Freud (Miner, 2008). He mentions a human beings behavior is comprises of desires, thoughts and memories. These factors are represented by the unconscious state making them unconscious forms of motivation. These unconscious actions influence the conscious actions of an individual. Most of the actions that people perform are triggered by the unconscious thoughts that they relay. This is one of the theories that give credit to positive thinking and positive actions. A person who thinks of negative thoughts and desires creates negative situations. This is because negative thoughts give rise to negative actions (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). This applies to the application of positive thoughts as a source of motivation. This source of motivation has played a significant role in my decision to get a college education by studying psychology. Both unconscious and conscious motivation work hand in hand making them complement each other. Thinking about being a psychologist in future influences me to apply all my talents so that I can achieve my goals. Applying my talents is performed by positive actions such as hard work, studying for exams and concentrating in all things psychology.

Motivation is used in places such as the workplaces, schools and sports. My choice to take on psychology is inspired by my family. Through my family, I am able to align myself with positive features so that I can get positive results. My choice to take on psychology as a course is inspired by the needs to understand people better. Psychology is the study of the mind of a human being (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). Human beings have the same characteristics which makes them similar in nature. Despite this, they possess different qualities that set different people apart from each other. Having different personalities creates different character traits that make each individual unique. Being unique gives rise to different social groups that people use to identify with each other. Human beings cannot be contained in a particular group due to the different personalities they portray. It is thus ideal to have the ability communicate with different sorts of people in different social classes and creeds. As stated earlier, psychology aids a person understand the thoughts, feelings, qualities and character traits of their peers (Hoffmann, 2007). Understanding different people encourages communication which in turn, gives rise to respect. When people respect each other, they are able to maintain peaceful situations where war would be the obvious choice. Choosing to study psychology is thus motivated by my need to understand the different character traits that people have. This form of motivation portrays conscious motivation due to influence by the surrounding environment. Unconscious motivation cannot be ruled out because positive thoughts determine the actions and performance that I choose to take.

Another theory of motivation is Frederick Winslow Taylor’s theory of motivation. Taylor takes a different route by breaking down goals and objectives in small portions. Taylor states that people generally have a hard time achieving their objectives (Miner, 2008). This is credited to the fact that most of the objectives are long term oriented. It is much more difficult to achieve long term objectives due to the monotony and boredom that may come with the trade. Choosing to get a degree in psychology takes a period of three to four years. This type of goal is thus classified under a long term goal making it harder to achieve. There are a number of factors that make students drop out of college. Taylor mentions that people have an easier time performing their tasks when there divided into sub tasks (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). This form of motivation is ideal for someone in my position and thus acts as a source of reference. Since it is not advised to take a break from college, a student can concentrate on the selected semester courses that are of interest to them. As a psychologist student, I have chosen to focus on each course keenly so that I can maximize on my score. This acts as a source of motivation in that I can concentrate on three months as opposed to four years. Motivation should be applied by a person who portrays features that an individual aspires to be like (Hoffmann, 2007). Agents of motivation can come in different forms depending on the surrounding environment. Some of the people I get motivation from are my parents, teachers, influential figures and pioneer psychologists. This type of motivation is ideal in that I am able to live by the principles that are set by my mentors.

Conclusion

Motivating factors improve the performance of people who receive motivation on a regular basis. It is difficult to be motivated by factors that do not portray positive outcomes. People require motivation on a regular basis due to the challenges that are experienced on a daily basis. A majority of people around the world apply the motivation theories without even knowing about their existence. This provides evidence of the effectiveness of the motivational theories. As a student, I face a number of hardships that may distract me from achieving my goals. The use of unconscious motivation puts me back on track by acting as a source of inspiration for me. My choice to acquire a psychology degree is one of the most significant choices of my life. This is categorized under the long term goals and requires an immense amount of motivation so that I graduate with honors. Being able to use my degree will impact not only on my life but on the lives of the entire society. Through my degree I will be able to give back to the community by using my talent to help others. One of the advantages that come with this is the idea that I will one day become a source of motivation for the younger generation to come.

References

Beck, R. C. R. C. (2004). Motivation: Theories and principles. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Education.

Forgas, J. P., & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology. (2006). Social motivation: Conscious and unconscious processes ; [the Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, volume 6]. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press

Hoffmann, S. (2007). Classical Motivation Theories – Similarities and Differences between them. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH.

Miner, J. B. (2008). Organizational behavior 5: From unconscious motivation to role-motivated leadership. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe.

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Ch.2 Homework answers

One can observe all the stars, the equator. From the North Pole, only half of the sky can be seen throughout the year, not subject to any change.

Four ways to demonstrate the Earth is spherical

Watching a ship as it sails off to sea. As the vessels move toward the horizon, it sinks first, then the mast, instead of getting smaller and smaller until its visibility disappears.

If one pays attention during the lunar eclipse, you may note that indeed the Earth is spherical. During this time, the Earth crosses between the Moon and the Sun. Hence, the Earth’s shadow is cast onto the Moon in the night sky by the Sun.

Traveling through different time zones. At an elevation of 35,000 feet, the Earth’s curvature is somewhat visible and even more visible at a 50,000 feet elevation.

When watching a sunset from point A, one notices a clear horizon that certainly will be in the front, while behind you is somewhat an elevated point that one can quickly access (point B).

According to geocentric, the heavenly bodies rotate on epicycles lying on the deferents, thus making the Earth overtake the planets far from the Sun and it and certainly appear as if they are going backward in their orbits. Heliocentric theory hold that retrograde motion comes as a result of the Earth passing the outer planets that move slower than the Earth, making them look as if they are going backward relative to the background stars.

Galileo’s model placed the Earth at the center of the universe and other heavenly bodies circling it. On the other hand, the Copernicus model puts the Sun at the center of the universe, and planets, Moon, stars circle around it.

Galileo discovered that the Sun is at the center of the universe instead of the Earth, which was the common belief at the time. He found that the Sun had a dark sunspot. He also discovered the four moons of Jupiter, Callisto, lo, Europa and Ganymede. Galileo also made discoveries on the phases of Venus; more importantly, he noted and proved that Venus does not orbit the Earth. Previously it was thought that the Milky Way was a cloud, which he proved is was not; instead, it is comprised of numerous stars.

Hipparchus came up with star maps, where starts were ranked by calling the first magnitude the “brightest” and second magnitude were those “less bright.” Six magnitudes was the name given to the faintest. It is the reason why it appears to go backward, with smaller numbers indicating brighter stars.

During the day, circumpolar stars are on the horizon; hence, they can be spotted since they orbit the north pole star.

The Sun moves at about 1 degree each day, which equates to 4 minutes of the right rise. It takes 365 and ¼ days for the Sun to go back to its point of origin.

On average, the Moon moves at about 13.2 degrees every day. It takes roughly 27.3 days for the Moon to return to its original location.

Zodiac constellations are once in a year passed by the Sun and are 12 specific constellations. Other constellations are generally a group of stars forming a certain pattern, and their traditional mythological figures are used to their naming and identification.

The popular geocentric model made the people thought that the Sun was a planet circling the Earth. The Sun has nine planets, asteroids, and comets revolving around the milky way galaxy. Contrary to the idea, Moon revolves around the planets. The stars and the planets have a different composition, and there are numerous stars, but the Earth and the Sun are close.

The ecliptic plane and the celestial equator are not the same. The ecliptic plane is the plane of the Earth’s axis around the Sun. On the other hand, the Earth’s projection of the equator onto the sky is called the celestial equator.

Asterism can be defined as a group of stars or star patterns that do not form their constellation but are seen in the night sky. Examples of asterisms include The Summer Triangle and The Great Square of Pegasus.

Pythagoras believed the Earth is spherical, basing his argument on observing the terminator line of the Moon circling the orbit, which has a round shape. In his thought, he concluded that if the Moon is spherical, even the Earth must be spherical.

The Moon appears to be passing in front of the Sun during the solar eclipse. It made Aristotle conclude the Sun is further away from the Earth than the Moon.

Aristotle deduced the Earth is spherical by observing the circular shadow cast by the Earth during the lunar eclipse. Also, when people move to the South, they tend to see fewer polar stars, and no polar stars are seen at the pole.

Hipparchus discovered precession by comparing his 200 BC records’ circa with older charts. He found out that the equinoxes during his time displayed similar positioning among the stars compared to those of 150-year-old maps showed. It resulted from the gyroscopic wobble of Earth’s spin axis, and it takes approximately 26 000 years to complete.

Ptolemy had to introduce multiple epicycles since he must have accounted for the retrograde motion of the planets observed occasionally.

Copernicus wanted to develop a new system for predicting planetary position since he viewed the Ptolemaic model as unclear, perhaps not precise for planet positioning prediction. Institutions like the churches were invested in the notion that the Earth is placed in the middle of the universe, which is not the case.

What makes the geocentric and heliocentric models to choose between them is the fact that people do not feel the Earth’s motion even though it is moving, making it easier to place the Earth in the middle. The two theories were not precise on their philosophical reasoning on placing either the Sun or the Earth at the center of the universe.

It would display crescent phases as the larger part of the bright side will not be facing the Earth.

Motor behavior

Name

Professor

Course

Date

Motor behavior

Motor behavior is movement study, which is an old discipline mainly in the forefront to enhance coaching aspects. It comprise of motor development, motor control and motor learning.

Motor development

 In motor development, the focus is mainly on child development s well as historically studied in relation to athletics. It remains important in term of considering keeping children interested for a long time. It is defined as the continual age associated changes linked to movements from basic unorganized skills to complicated motor actions. The data associated with motor development is based from child research and applicable to track and field’s. This is because athletes tend s to move from basic to complicated movements during their development. Athletes development referred to as body development and it’s systems is a new field of research. It is evident that all systems are required for conducting simple tasks such as running, control of musculature Central Nervous System and vestibular system for balance (Hoffman, 2005). Different athletes develop at dissimilar rates with these systems being rate controllers. An example of such a scenario is that some infants start walking when they are nine months, while other s at sixteen months, which shows different system development rates (Hoffman, 2005). The aspect remains vital to understand as a coach in that not only infants and young athletes not able to act, but their body systems might not have developed enough to perform certain skills at a specific level.

Motor learning

Body systems are often developed and then integrated to what is termed as ability. Even the best athletes have to learn for them to attain new skills and reach the next refinement level. Throws, jumps, as well as hurdles are sporty events that are skills oriented, which makes usage of motor learning to help them acquire the skills (Lee, 1991). In most cases, Motor Learning is viewed as a comparatively permanent change in relation to motor behavior because of practice and experience. Even though motor learning has been there for such a long time it still exists in academia and not used by the coaching community.

Motor control

Motor control is helpful in assisting a coach deal with skilled athletes and high level, trained to acquire greater levels of skills. The process can be attained through the usage of Motor Control termed as the mechanisms, which leads to coordination (Lee, 1991). The areas have been researched since the time of the Greeks with modern time’s research limited to clinical populations. It is obvious that there are various factors in terms of motor control and neuro-physiological (Hoffman, 2005). The major areas influencing influence control as well as coordinative action remains level of freedom, freeing together with freezing, 

It is clear that performance in sports is linked to hereditary and environmental aspects. Practice coupled with feedback remains a fundamental variable, which influences motor skills acquisition. It is evident that each person has the capacity to improve, but at different levels. The fact has resulted to frequent debate on the relative significance of genetic as well as environmental influences in relation to motor learning. These factors influence a person initial proficiency level, improvement rate final attainment level. Coaches need to be equipped educationally as well as intellectually to motor behavior issues and development as it allows coaches together with athletes to be efficient in their development.

References

Hoffman, Shirl J. 2005. Introduction to kinesiology: studying physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Lee AM. 1991. “Research on teaching in physical education: questions and comments”.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 62 (4): 374-9.

Advance Tax

Name of Student

Name of Institution

Introduction

The body of rules that govern the tax issues relating to off-market share buybacks are found in Division 16K of the Australian Income Tax Assessment Act of 1936. Tax implications in a buyback differ depending on whether the company itself is the subject or the shareholder. Before attempting the question at hand, this paper will first explore the crucial rules and terms associated with the tax implications of share buybacks off-market to set the ground for proper analysis of the scenario.

The Mechanisms of a Share Buy-back

The process of buying back shares commences when a company makes the decision offering to buy back a certain amount of its shares from shareholders. If shareholders give a nod to the offer, they sell back their shares to the company. The company then immediately cancels those shares from the share register hence reducing the number of shares issued by the company. There are different types of buy-backs that a company can opt for, but the two common ones are equal access and selective. In equal access buy-back, the whole buy-back process is open to shareholders generally, and the terms are the same for all shareholders. In selective buy-back, the offer may be made to selected shareholders or an individual shareholder.

Tax Treatment for the Company

Arguing from the perspective of the company, share buy-backs outside the market are tax neutral because no deductible tax loss or assessable gain is occasioned by the buyback. Consequently, when determining the tax position of the company in this case, the buyback transaction is deemed not to have taken place. In instances where the buyback results in a dividend for the shareholder, the dividend is considered a frankable distribution, which should be franked to the benchmark franking percentage of the company during the franking period for which the payment of that dividend is made. As a result, the franking account of the company should reflect the share buy-back’s dividend component in its debit side.

Tax Treatment for the Shareholder

Arguing from the perspective of the shareholder, the debited part of the buy-back price to the company’s retained earnings is considered a dividend. On the other hand, the debited part of the buy-back to the share capital is treated as a consideration for share disposal for the purposes of capital gains tax (CGT) but subject to several potential adjustments.

Tax Issues to Consider

The following pertinent tax issues spring from an off-market share buy-back:

The mode of calculating the buyback price

The entitlement to franking credits

The application of anti-avoidance rules

Based on these issues, this paper will discuss the tax implications for EW Australia Ltd, Duncan and Debbie as a result of the buy-back process.

Tax Treatment (Shareholder)

As already mentioned, share buy-backs outside the market are tax-neutral from the perspective of the company. On the contrary, the Australian tax rules governing share buy-backs outside the market contain two major implications for those shareholders who sell their shares to the company in the buy-back process:

Deemed Dividend

Any bit of the proceeds of a buy-back debited to the retained earnings account of the company is deemed assessable dividends to a shareholder. Under the franking rules, these dividends can be franked to the extent of the company’s allocation of anticipated or existing franking credits.

The CGT Implications

On the basis of CGT, a shareholder is regarded to have disposed of his shares for consideration of an amount equal to the price of buy-back minus the dividend component that is assessable (this amount represents the portion of the buy-back price that goes to the debit side of the share capital account of the company). If this consideration exceeds the cost base of the shareholder in the shares, there could be a resultant capital gain. On the contrary, if the cost base of the shareholder in the shares exceeds the consideration, there could be a resultant capital loss.

For those corporate shareholders who are entitled to an intercorporate dividend rebate, it is important to take note that there could be a resultant double tax benefit because:

The resultant deemed dividend from share buy-back off-market could inflate a tax loss through a reduction of the consideration on share disposal; and

The shareholder also has an entitlement to the intercorporate dividend rebate.

The rules of share buy-back outside market also make provision for some adjustments to the buy-back price allocation as a measure to prevent shareholders from reaping the double tax benefit. In addition, these rules provide that share buy-back price is to be treated as consideration with regards to share disposal for CGT and income tax purposes generally. On the contrary, there could be circumstances where the consideration on deemed market value of the shares could be substituted.

Calculating the Buy-back Price

The Commissioner of Taxation’s powers to enforce the anti-avoidance rules for franking credit and capital benefit hinder the usual flexibility that companies have in as far as structuring their buy-back proceeds is concerned. Much of recent experiences point towards the Australian Taxation Office’s use of the franking credit rules to demand of companies to restructure their buy-buck proceeds so that inappropriate tax outcome do not arise.

The mechanisms of applying these rules create much uncertainty. The Commissioner can apply the anti-avoidance rules for franking credit when he has reasonable grounds to believe that the company has made excessive allocations to its retained earnings. The Commissioner can also apply the anti-avoidance rules for capital benefit if he has reasonable grounds to believe that there has been an excessive allocation to share capital. Worse still, the uncertainty is increased by the fact that no guidelines in tax rulings by the courts publicly exist to give a clue as to the determination of the manner of allocating buy-back proceeds. Reliable arguments have established that the Commissioner could consider any of the allocation criteria summarized below. The Commissioner has not given any one criterion more emphasis than the rest. Rather, ATO considers each criterion based on the facts and circumstances of each individual case.

Criterion A

This approach is otherwise known as the share capital to retained profit ratio. Based on this approach, a company’s buyback proceeds composition is an impression of the relative proportions of the company’s retained earnings and share capital as at the buyback. Experts have revealed that this criterion is the one that the Commissioner uses most in his determination of the proper allocation of proceeds from a buy-back.

Criterion B

This approach is otherwise known as the percentage interest in a company’s share capital. Under this approach, the company may alternatively allocate the proceeds from its buy-back in a manner acceptable to the Commissioner by basing the allocation on the respective interests of the shareholder in the company’s share capital.

Criterion C

This approach is otherwise known as the percentage interest in a company’s retained earnings. Under this approach, the company may alternatively allocate the proceeds from its buy-back in a manner acceptable to the Commissioner by basing the allocation on the respective interests of the shareholder in the company’s retained profits.

Market Value and Anti-avoidance Rules

Anti-avoidance rules come to play whenever there is a calculation of the buy-back price. According to these rules, any value in excess of the buy-back price in comparison to the market value of the shares in question is not frankable. It means, therefore, that the company should see to it that it can adduce evidence to show that the buy-back price it offered to its shareholders never exceeded the market value of those shares. On the contrary, if the market value of the shares exceeds the buy-back price as at the buy-back (assuming no buy-back ever occurred nor was intended), then, the market value of the shares in this case will be regarded as consideration for the share disposal. When this occurs, the capital gain and capital loss occasioned to the shareholder due to the buy-back will go down and up respectively.

None of the above adjustments would arise if the company sets its buy-back price in such a way that ATO will view the price as equal to the market value of the shares as at the buy-back (assuming no buy-back ever occurred nor was intended). For instance, ATO recently issued the Taxation Determination 2004/22 that outlines its views on the determination of the market value of shares for listed companies that exercise buy-back outside the market.

Employee Share Schemes

Financial reward is one way of motivating employees. Business owners are more than willing to see their businesses blooming up in the skies. Giving their staff certain stakes in the enterprise through shares is a kind of incentive and a reward at the same time. Most companies have used this formula. The formula is best known as an employee share scheme. When employees have some stake in the enterprise they work for, they feel motivated and will have a sense of participation. This gives them the urge to work harder so that the enterprise grows. Share options under the employee share schemes are availed to the employees at costs that are normally below the market value of the shares. The difference between the market value of the shares and what the employee actually pays is known as “discount.” The Australian Tax Office treats the discount as income during the assessment of income. Accordingly, the discount is often taxed as part of income.

Legislative Change

The legislation on employee share schemes has since changed. This necessitates the distinction between pre-July 2009 schemes and post-June 2009 schemes (that is, there was a change in treatment of the employee share schemes that took effect between the periods). These changes did not appeal to most employers who in turn pushed for reforms. Shares that were acquired prior to the switch are to be taxed based on the provisions of the previous provisions for share schemes whereas shares acquired thereafter are to be taxed based on the new provisions.

One attractive feature of the schemes was the huge allowance to the tune of $1,000 maximum being exempted from tax if the employee in question opted for the taxation of the discounted value of his shares in their year of acquisition. Under the “qualifying” scheme, it was possible for an employee to defer tax until the disposition of the shares if he chose so, but this option came with the detriment of forfeiting the $1,000 tax-free allowance.

As per the new provisions, employees are still liable to pay tax on the discount. This tax applies for the year of acquisition of the shares. However, unlike the previous rules, employees cannot defer the tax save for “real risk of forfeiture” situations and where the employee acquires the interests under some kind of salary sacrifice arrangement. Today, the tax exemption is only available to those whose salaries are below $180,000.

A more limited option to defer has been brought about by the new rules. This option places a time limit of 7 years on the deferring tax, and it is available only where the schemes exhibit a genuine risk of forfeiture or where an employee receives shares worth $5,000 and below under a salary sacrifice arrangement. A genuine risk of forfeiture refers to the fact that an employee is highly likely to lose or never benefit from the shares or their entitlement options under the scheme in question. For instance, conditions may be put for the availability of shares such as the enterprise reaching certain targets in its finances. Alternatively, the risk could occur in a falling market in which the value of the shares is highly likely to fall. Moreover, the risk of the business undergoing liquidation cannot be ignored. However, a condition to the effect that the employee cannot for a certain duration sell the shares cannot qualify for a genuine risk of forfeiture.

Income Tax Calculations for Duncan and Debbie

DUNCAN

The buy-back of the shares was done off-market, and the price of the shares was significantly less than the market value of the shares had the buy-back not taken place. Duncan will calculate his capital gain for taxation purposes as follows.

Capital proceeds

Market value $7.50

less dividend $1.00

  ($6.50 x 1,000 shares) = $6,500

less cost base ($6 x 1,000 shares) = $6,000

Capital gain (before applying any discount)   $500

Duncan will use his capital gain to complete item no. 18 in his tax return (at the supplementary section). Moreover, he will factor in his dividend at item no. 11 on his tax return.

DEBBIE

The buy-back of the shares was done off-market and the price of the shares was significantly less than the market value of the shares had the buy-back not taken place. Debbie will calculate his capital gain for taxation purposes as follows.

Capital proceeds

Market value $7.50

less dividend $1.00

  ($6.50 x 1,000 shares) = $6,500

less cost base ($6 x 1,000 shares) = $6,000

Capital gain (before applying any discount)   $500

Debbie will use his capital gain to complete item no. 18 in his tax return (at the supplementary section). Moreover, he will factor in his dividend at item no. 11 on his tax return.

Current Income Tax Rates in Australia

Taxable income Tax on this income

0 – $18,200 Nil

$18,201 – $37,000 19c for each $1 over $18,200

$37,001 – $80,000 $3,572 plus 32.5c for each $1 over $37,000

$80,001 – $180,000 $17,547 plus 37c for each $1 over $80,000

$180,001 and over $54,547 plus 45c for each $1 over $180,000

Adopted from the Australian Tax Office

Duncan’s taxable income is $75,000, which falls in the third bracket. To this amount of taxable income will be added the capital gain of $500 from the share buy-back. Therefore, Duncan’s taxable income will be $75,500.

Debbie’s taxable income is $135,000, which falls in the fourth bracket in the table above. To this amount of taxable income will be added the capital gain of $500 from the share buy-back. There is also the aspect of the company car that should be factored in in Debbie’s taxable income calculation. The cost of the car is stated to be $45,000. This is treated as income as it is part of capital gain within the income year. Therefore, the cost of the car will be added to Debbie’s total taxable income (that is, $135,500 + $45,000) giving the total of $180,500. This is the final taxable income for Debbie.

References

Australian Tax Office (2014). Commissioner of Taxation v. Consolidated Media Holdings Ltd.

Retrieved 28 October 2014 from http://law.ato.gov.au/atolaw/view.htm?DocID=LIT/ICD/S228of2012/00001Australian Tax Office (2014). Employee Share Schemes – Guide for Employees. Retrieved 28

October 2014 from https://www.ato.gov.au/general/employee-share-schemes/in-detail/what-you-need-to-know/employees/employee-share-schemes—guide-for-employees/Australian Tax Office (2014). Individual Tax Rates. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from

https://www.ato.gov.au/rates/individual-income-tax-rates/Australian Tax Office (2014). Deductions for Businesses. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from

https://www.ato.gov.au/business/deductions-for-business/Australian Tax Office (2014). Share Buy-backs. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from

https://www.ato.gov.au/General/Capital-gains-tax/In-detail/Shares,-units-and-similar-investments/Share-buy-backs/Caldwell, Rod (2014). Taxation for Australian Businesses: Understanding Australian Business

Taxation Concessions WrightbooksKing & Wood Mallesons (2014). Test case regarding the income tax share buy-back rules –

Commissioner of Taxation v Consolidated Media Holdings. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from http://www.mallesons.com/publications/marketAlerts/2012/Pages/Test-case-regarding-the-income-tax-share-buy-back-rules-Commissioner-of-Taxation-v-Consolidated-Media-Holdings.aspxLaw Gazette (2014). Memorandum on Share Buybacks. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from

http://www.lawgazette.com.sg/2001-4/April01-focus3.htmPrince, Jimmy B. (2011). Property & Taxation: A Practical Guide to Saving Tax on Your

Property Investments WrightbooksRaftery, Adrian (2014). 101 Ways to Save Money on Your Tax – Legally! 2014-2015

WrightbooksTaxpayers Australia Inc. (2014). The Taxpayers Guide 2014-2015. WrightbooksTax Interpretations (2014). Australian Tax Consequences of the Intrepid Share Buy-back will

Turn on the Post Transaction Ruling. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from http://taxinterpretations.com/?p=30670The Tax Institute (2014). High Court grants special leave in share buyback case – Consolidated

Media. Retrieved 28 October 2014 from http://www.taxinstitute.com.au/news/high-court-grants-special-leave-in-share-buyback-case-consolidated-mediaUsa, Ibp (2008). Australia Tax Guide. USA: International Business Publications

Name

Professor’s name

Course

Date

President Ronald Reagan Address to the Nation on the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster

The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was an accident that occurred in January 1986 in the space program in the United States. The Space Shuttle collapsed after 73 seconds of taking off killing all seven individuals aboard including Christa McAuliffe, Michael Smith, Judith Resnik, Dick Scobee, Ellison Onizuka, Ronald McNair, and Gregory Jarvis. In his speech, President Ronald Reagan provided consolation to the American people and those who knew the astronauts in various ways. He mentioned that enough he cannot bear the full of impact of the tragedy as much as the families did, he consoled them that the state was thinking about them very much. Additionally, in his speech, he referred to the astronauts as daring and brave individuals with special grace. Reagan referred to the members of the crew as pioneers who served everybody. President Reagan further encouraged the citizens by saying that the US space program is something he has great respect for and faith in and that the accident that took place was nothing to diminish it. He noted that at the Program, things and secrets are not things that are covered up but instead, they are taken up front and in public because that is the way freedom is and he would not change it for a minute.

To everyone who has dreams relating to the space program particularly the schoolchildren of America, President Reagan encouraged them by saying that although it might be hard for them to understand and that at times painful things are bound to happen in the journey of discovery and exploration. He said that it was all part of taking chances and expanding man’s horizon. He added that the future does not belong to the faint-hearted but rather the brave. He noted that the Challenger had a dream of pulling us into the future and that we would follow in their footsteps. He continued with a call to action that the Program would continue with their quests in space and that there would be more shuttle crews, more flights, volunteers, civilians, and teachers in space. President Reagan uses language to convey his condolences to the family of the Challenger seven (7) astronauts who lost their lives in the incident. He employs careful selection of words and a sympathetic tone to console the US citizens. He uses a personalized approach to address NASA employees which makes them feel appreciated. He tells them “Your dedication and professionalism have moved and impressed us for decades. And we know of your anguish. We share it.” This language evokes feelings of appreciation, gratitude, and empathy.

Cell Phones Standardization Regulations

Name

Professor

Course

Date

Cell Phones Standardization Regulations

It is absurd that a simple device like a cell phone could cause death to people severally without people learning lessons from these incidences. The government should standardize cell phone regulations that discipline drivers on safe driving to protect people’s lives. Banning use of Cell phones while driving is one way to protect countries safeties. The consideration on whether the ban on using cell phone while driving should be implemented, there are two different positions. Cell phone, when a car is in motion, should be made unlawful with exceptions of situation considered emergencies. Cell phones have proven to be a distraction as a human brain concentrates better on one thing at a time. The usage of cell phones when driving gives an individual a slower reaction time, therefore, increasing the number of accidents on the roads. Other people argue that the cell phones tend to cause as much distraction as radio and cell phones are required for emergencies. On the other hand, there is the argument that a law that makes the usage of cell phones illegal when driving will be helpful in reducing the number of accidents on the roads and increase drivers concentration when driving.

The usage of cell phones while driving should be outlawed because they are a source of distraction when driving. It is obvious that an individual brain works better when concentrating on one thing and cannot concurrently function well when doing any tasks (Funk, 2004).  Research shows that the cell phones users when driving are at a greater risk of being involved in serious road accidents. Driving using two hands on the wheel gives a person total concentration, this often encourages safe driving. The aspect proves that human beings are not good at multitasking and, therefore, using cell phones when driving is unsafe.

At the same time, although an individual might believe they can multitask, using cell phones when driving makes a person have a slower reaction time resulting to an accident. Cell phone drivers can be compared to drivers who are under the influence, in that they both experience great impairment and are less responsive when driving (Briem & Hedman, 2005). A significant aspect of being in control when driving is a driver reaction time as immediate reaction is important in the prevention of accidents. Many laws have been put in place to help in the reduction of alcohol related accidents, which, therefore, necessitates attention n establishment of laws to ban usage of cell phones while driving (Funk, 2004).

The law, which bans the usage of cell phones when driving unless in a situation considered emergency, will help in reducing the number of road accidents. It is obvious that the cell phones are an essential need socially unlike in the past where there were no cases of cell phone drivers. In emergency situations, there is a need for cell phones to be allowed but if the call is important a person should first pull over to make a call (Alm & Nilsson, 2005). Other people argue that the usage of cell phones when driving tends to reduce the response times associated with emergency situations. Research shows that over 140,000 emergency calls are placed using cell phone users daily, which makes a good point and need to be considered when outlawing the usage of cell phones when driving (Brookhuis, De Vries & De Waard, 2001). The move is essential as accident rates would remain lower by enacting a ban on cell phone users while driving but still permit emergency phone calls. Although, there are many factors that have not been banned yet such as drinking, eating and talking with other people who are in the car when driving, this should be because not overlooking the ban (Lahood, 2009). Cell phone usage while driving has been a contentious issue for a long time now, which needs to be addressed by enacting a law to ban the common behavior. Cell phones are considered noticeable factor, which can be helpful in reducing the number of road accidents.

Conclusion

The usage of cell phones has proven to be a distraction in terms of concentration when driving resulting road accidents. The human brain functions better when focusing none thing at a time and cannot multitask. Cell phone drivers experience slower reaction time when driving which leads to more accidents in the end. Conversely, the usage of cell phones when a person is driving need to be made illegal with exceptions given to emergency cases. It is obvious by the studies undertaken; the benefits associated with usage of a cell phone when driving do not surpass the risks associated with the behavior. Many lives have been unnecessarily lost as families being torn apart over something that can be easily prevented. There are a number of viable options available that can help reduce these numbers. Since studies show that using a cell phone while driving is equivalent to driving under the influence and they have to be treated as similar crime and liable to be punished by the state law. There should be standardization of regulations regarding cell phone usage while driving across all states. The safety of the states motorists should be regarded as vital as the convenience. Most countries ban mobile texting while driving, however, there no bill that has been passed to eliminates the use of cell phones while driving across all states.

References

Alm, H., & Nilsson, L. (2005). The effects of a mobile telephone task on driver behaviour in a car following situation. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 27(5), 707-715.

Briem, V., & Hedman, L. R. (2005). Behavioural effects of mobile telephone use during simulated driving. Ergonomics, 38(12), 2536-2562.

Brookhuis, K. A., De Vries, G., & De Waard, D. (2001). The effects of mobile telephoning on

Driving performance. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 23, 309-316.

Funk, J. L. (2004). Mobile disruption: the technologies and applications driving the mobile

Internet. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.

IRTAD Road Safety Annual Report 2009 (2009 ed.). (2010). S.l.: International Transport Forum.

The best of Motor Trend: 1949-1999. (A 50th anniversary special ed.). (1999). Los Angeles: