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Situational Approach

Case 5.1: Marathon Runners at Different Levels

Part 1

The runners are new to this activity and have accumulated no experience at all. Because they are all novices to running, they are classified as (D1) under the development levels. Their excitement about the race and their effort to show up each day is an indication of high commitment. So under the development levels, they are D1, low competence, and high commitment. This group asks basic questions constantly and is worried about their abilities in the race. For this reason, David should adopt the qualities of a coach represented by (S3) leadership styles. The group needs direction on the technicalities of a marathon. David does not expect, however, to deal with these kinds of questions and is not prepared. He is rather prepared to use Directing (S2), in his mind, his work is to direct and not to encourage this group coming to him with childish insecurities.

Part 2

It is clear from their choice of words and their concerns that runners in group two are considerably experienced and know a thing or two about running, they possibly lie under the (D3) developmental level (Northouse). With this group, David is at his element being highly supportive and because of their experience, he does not need to apply a hands-on approach or exercise high direction.

Part 3

This group’s experience and the ability of several of them to finish in the top ten put them at the D4 developmental category. It might not be David’s fault that he appears ineffective as a coach for this team. Their ego and an idea in their minds that they need a certain level of practice and tactics mean they do not appreciate David. They feel bigger than the New York marathon and look to focus on marathons beyond this one.

Part 4

David’s experience as a marathon runner himself is important for his coaching; his idea of the sport makes him suitable to speak to other people as a coach. The way he deals with group 1 may suggest a little bias, which is not a strong point for a leader. He needs to exercise patience if he is to succeed in this position. He also needs to exert a little more authority and demand respect from Group 3 runners.

Case 5.2: Why Aren’t They Listening?

Part 1

The behavior of David, in this case, indicates that he is a supporting leader, high supportive but low directive. He does not coerce anybody into coming to the seminar and believes it should be a personal initiative.

Part 2

The mid-level managers are in Developmental level 2 (D2) because their level of education, position, and probable experience mean that they have some competence but their lack of appreciation and support for the training is indicative of their low commitment.

Part 3

Although Jim is trying to get his people to take initiative, which is quite an effective leadership tool if successful, he should have defined the direction and the objectives of the training through a prior discussion with the kid-managers. Support can only be guaranteed by inclusion that is why he should have discussed with the group and create concise and realistic goals as well as deadlines. Jim fails to give his group a sense of responsibility for this training.

Part 4

Jim being a senior official has the capacity to demand some accountability. He can do this by developing questioning techniques and giving feedback to create a more engaging environment. He needs to set meaningful goals, which should make the managers find value in the time they are spending on that training. Without these objectives, no strategy can make these managers are more engaged.

Works Cited

Northouse, Peter G. Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications, 2018.

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Topic: Action Potential and the Pathway a Receptor Takes.

Action potential is a short lasting event in which electrical membrane potential of a cell rises and falls. It occurs in several kinds of animal cells known as neurons, muscle cells and endocrine cells. Action potential is the first step to what leads to contraction of a muscle (Sherwood, 2010). This is known as nerve impulses. The skin is the largest sensory organ that allows reception of pain, pleasure and pressure. The type neuron involved is the sensory neuron an external stimulation to pressure, temperature, light, or sound. All this alter the ionic permeabilities of the membrane and its voltage. The main requirement for generation of action potential is through membrane voltage at the hillock is raised above the threshold for initialization of impulse. Action potentials are mainly generated by excitatory postsynaptic potentials, neuron-transmitter are released by pre-synaptic molecules that bind to receptors on the post-synaptic (Sherwood, 2010). This bond helps open ionic channels that change the permeability of the cell membrane hence membrane potential. Neuron transmission can also occur through electrical synapses. Through exchange of sodium ions and potassium ions between extracellular fluids and the intracellular fluid generates the flow of impulses in the neuron which leads to depolarization. The action potential at the hillock propagates a long wave through the axon, the current flows through the axon and spreads out along the membrane. There are two types of synapses dendrites and the axon boutons. Dendrites receive transmission in the pre-synaptic neuron. Emerging out of the soma is the axon hillock that has a high concentration of voltage activated sodium channels. Axon is insulated by a myelin sheath. Action potential in the skeletal muscle results from depolarization of the cell membrane which opens voltage sensitive sodium channels these become inactivated and the membrane becomes repolarised through outward current of potassium ions on the outside. Some of the muscles involved in reception are the skeletal muscles and that are mostly involved joints are hinge joints that move only in one direction forming an angle of 180 degrees. The importance of reflex action is to prevent us from getting hurt further or to drive us out of danger and harm.

Sherwood, L. (2010). Human physiology: from cells to systems (7th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Motivation In Business.

Introduction

Motivation has been defined as the psychological process that gives behaviour purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). In psychology, motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior (Green, 1995). In simplistic terms, we can define motivation as the desire and willingness to do something and the inner force that helps individuals achieve their goals. Understanding what motivates employees and what can employers do to motivate their internal customers has been the focus of research by many researchers and the topic has gained special prominence in recent years. This is mainly because motivated employees can provide a firm with a distinctive advantage and a comptetitive edge and by being more productive they can help organisation thrive and survive. There are two schools of thought on motivational theories, the scientific school of thought and the behavioural school of thought.

Scientific Model

The basis of scientific management is considering employees as an input to the production of goods and services. The approach stresses on scientific selection, training and development of workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and training methods and its objective is to carry out work in accordance with scientifically devised procedures. One of the pioneers and inventor of scientific approach to management was Frederick Taylor.

Frederic Taylor, (1856-1915) was the first to analyse human behaviour scientifically with his machine model by making individuals into the equivalent of machine parts. He broke down the tasks to its smallest unit to figure out the best approach. After careful analysis of the job, workers were trained to do only those motions essential to the task. Taylor attempted to make a science for each element of work and restrict behavioural alternatives facing worker and looked at interaction of human characteristics, social environment, task, and physical environment, capacity, speed, durability and cost. The overall goal was to remove human variability. (Terpstra, 2005) Taylor’s machine model was a success and did increase production and profitability because rational rules replaced trial and error and management became more formalized which eventually led to increased efficiency. But Taylor’s treatment of human beings like machines faced resistance from managers and workers who considered this way of working as “dehumanization of work”. One of the other features of Taylor’s work was stop-watch timing as the basis of observations and breaking the timings down into elements. This method also faced stiff group resistance because no one likes to be so close monitored for each little part of the work he/she does.

Despite its criticisms, Taylor’s methods had a great impact on work because he invented a new, efficient and more productive way to work that changed the complete nature of the industry. Before scientific management, departments such as work study, personnel, maintenance and quality control did not exist. (Buford, 2000) The core elements of scientific management remain popular and have only been modified and updated to suit the current scenario.

Behavioural approach

Unlike scientific approach behaviour approach places emphasis on what motivates people and seeks to identify and account for the specific influences that motivate people. Some of the distinguished theories of behavioural approach to motivation are discussed below.

Maslow (1943) put forward the ‘hierarchy of needs theory’ which saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from lowest to the highest. He argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need and once one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.

The five needs are:

Physiological needs – These are the most basic human needs which are important for sustenance like food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep etc. Maslow argued that unless physiological needs are satisfied to a degree, no other motivating factor can work.

Safety or Security needs – These are needs to be free of physical danger and emotional harm like the fear of losing a job, property, food or shelter. It relates to security, protection and stability in the personal events of everyday life.

Social Needs – These are needs for love, affection and belongingness and social acceptance. People are social beings and try to satisfy their needs for acceptance and friendship.

Esteem – Once people’s social needs are satisfied, they look for esteem (reputation). This need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like self-respect, autonomy, achievements and external esteem factors such as recognition and attention as well as personal sense of competence. (Source)

.Self actualization – This need is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. It’s the need to grow and use abilities to the fullest potential. It includes growth and self-fulfillment by achieving one’s potential to accomplish something

Looking at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs triangle, as each needs are substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. (eg. esteem needs become dominant after social needs are satisfied).Also, when a need gets substantially satisfied, it stops to be motivating. The crux of Maslow’s theory is to focus on finding out the level of hierarchy the person is in and focusing on satisfying his/her needs and the needs above it. Maslow’s theory of needs has been wider recognised and is being practiced by managers across the globe. The theory’s ease of understanding and intuitive logic makes it easy to implement, but there is no empirical evidence to validate the theory and there is no metric to measure the success of the theory after being implemented. So, the quantitative impact of Maslow’s theories cannot be accurately measured.

Frederick Herzberg’s (1959) famous quote says “If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.” Herzberg’s motivational theory has a two component approach and is known as the two-factor theory. His theory suggests that things which prevent dissatisfaction are not the same as things which create satisfaction. (Herzberg, 1959) When people are dissatisfied (de-motivated) with their work it is usually because of discontent with environmental factors which he terms as “Hygiene Factors”. These hygiene factors include factors such as, security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor, company policy and administration (Bedeian, 2003). These are the factors whose presence in the organization is natural and does not lead to motivation, however its absence does lead to de-motivation. Hygiene factors include the work and the organizational environment. The second component of the theory involves factors whose absence causes no dissatisfaction but whose presence has huge motivational value. Herzberg terms these factors as ‘Motivational factors’ which are factors such as growth prospects, career progression and advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements. The theory concentrates around the fact that the opposite to satisfaction is not dissatisfaction and merely removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily makes the job satisfying. Herzberg stresses that both the approaches (hygiene and motivational) should be done simultaneously to be effective. Herzberg’s theory, in a way, is a modification to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Some critics term Herzberg’s theory as vague, but considering today’s business world where job context and content are major issues, the theory if practiced effectively can give good results because it is based on superb motivational ideas.

Diagramatic representation of Herzberg two-factor theory (Taken from Web 2)Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Vroom’s expectancy theory argues that motivation is based on values and beliefs of individuals and examines motives through the perception of what a person believes will happen. It is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). The theory states that individuals can be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between the efforts they put in and their performance and when that favourable performance leads to a reward. Consequently, the reward helps satisfy an important need and the desire to satisfy that need is strong enough to make the efforts worth wile. The theory states that the strength of an individual’s motivation will depend on the extent to which they expect the results of their efforts to contribute towards their personal needs or goals and posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation(Vroom, 1964) The calculation is based on people’s beliefs (pointed above) about the probability that effort will lead to performance (expectancy), multiplied by the probability that performance will lead to reward (instrumentality), multiplied by the perceived value of the reward (valence) (Source) Vroom argues that the equation Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence can be used to predict whether a particular reward will motivate an individual or not.

Vroom’s theory can apply to any apply to any situation where someone does something because they expect a certain outcome. The theory is about the associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those outcomes (Bowen,1991) Critics have applauded the basics of Vroom’s theory but questions have been raised about the validity over the motivation equation as a product of expectancy, instrumentality and valence.

Porter-Lawler Expectancy theory

Porter-Lawler’s theory is much on the same lines as Vroom’s and suggests that levels of motivation are based more on the value that individuals place on the reward. Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent and is also affected by the person’s ability to do the job and his perception of what the required task is. The theory states that performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards and these rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward (Bowen 1991) Porter and Lawler point out that perceived inequality in this model plays a pivotal role in job satisfaction. The perception of equal or unequal reward may cause dissatisfaction which means that organizations have to continuously keep evaluating their reward system. The theory along with equity theory demonstrates the importance of avoiding discriminatory practices in the workplace and states that it is imperative for employees to give equal treatment to employees on the job.

Elton Mayo with his behavioural experiments known as “Hawthorne Experiments” was among the first few to analyse the human aspects of motivation He conclusions were that motivation was a very complex subject and was not only about pay, work condition and morale but also about psychological and social factors. He concluded that the need for recognition and a sense of belonging were very important motivational factors.

Reinforcement based approach to motivation

Reinforcement was propounded by Skinner and this theory is based on motivation approaches are in some way similar to expectancy theory as both consider the process by which an individual chooses behaviour in a particular situation. It emphasises re-designing the external environment by making positive changes to encourage motivation. Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishments actually leads to frustration and de-motivation. This approach explains the role of rewards in greater detail as they cause the behaviour to change or remain the same. Expectancy theory focuses more on behaviour choices, and reinforcement theory focuses more on the consequences of those choices (Skinner, 1953)

Other theories of behavioral motivation are Adams theory of Equity and Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.

Most of the behavioural theories seem to borrow a little from each other. Maslow’s theory concentrates on basic human needs, Herzberg’s two factor theory brings out the distinction between motivation-demotivation. Because of its quantitative nature, Vroom’s theory, is more suited to managers trying to gauge the effect of decisions on employees. Maslow describes which outcomes people are motivated by and Vroom describes whether they will act based upon their experience and expectations. (Harpaz,2004) Maslow’s theory can be too simple and rigid for today’s environment. Porter-Lawler model brings out the perceived inequality and brings out the demerits of discriminatory practices which may be more suitable for more diversified workforce. All behavioral theories have their own significance and its up to the management to decide which theory to apply. Application of motivational theories is purely contextual and specific to a particular workforce. Workplace might merge two theories and apply some of the features of each. Because of its contextual nature, none of the theories are generic and better than the other.

Comparison of Scientific and Behaviour approach

There is an underlying difference between the two approaches to motivation. Scientific approach assumes that work is inherently unpleasant to most people and the financial incentive is more important to them than other factors such as nature of job, role profile, work environment etc. While the behavioural approach to management emphasises the role of social processes in organisations and stresses on belongingness and the need to feel useful. It emphasises that these human needs motivate employees more than money. According to this view, people want to contribute to organisational effectiveness and want to make a genuine contribution towards its success. Scientific management is an effective technique for a capitalist system and a money economy where the company’s sole objective is the improvement of efficiency and profitability. (Higgins, 2004). In today’s workplace environment, where company’s success is judged by various qualitative parameters and where employee motivation forms a significant input to organisation’s success, human approach to management is more suited.

ConclusionsMotivation remains a challenge for organizations today. With the changing environment, the solution to motivation problems are becoming even more complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 2001) Managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform and understand the process, theories, and fundamental components of motivation. Regardless of which theory is followed, interesting work and employee pay are important links to higher motivation. Options such as job enlargement, job enrichment, promotions, monetary and non-monetary compensation should be considered. Research done by (Higgins, 2004) has come out with ten most motivating factors which are: interesting work, good wages, full appreciation of work done, job security, good working conditions, promotions and growth in the organization, feeling of being in on things, personal loyalty to employees, tactful discipline, and sympathetic help with personal problems. The key to motivating employees is to know what motivates them and designing a motivation program based on those needs.

Montezuma Castle

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This paper is about Montezuma castle, a monument about five miles north of Verde valley, Arizona.It is located on the fertile lands of cereals and cash crops like beans, corns, squash and cotton. It was also a reliable source of water from the well. The well is made from a limestone made many years ago. The cliff also acted as protection and security from hostile strangers hence the building fit the location.

The monument looks like a castle but just an ancient home made from cliffs. Montezuma has now become a prehistoric site and a museum. The museum is a five storey building with forty five rooms built at the base of the cliff which looks like a historical apartment, is a source of information on the ancient people.

It was originally made by the early Sina qua farmers. The farmers due to drought, later on abandoned the site and settled elsewhere. Montezuma has now become a prehistoric site and a museum. The museum is a source of information on the ancient people.

The area is managed by the national park service. Anybody visiting the park pays some fee for the visit. The sin aquas were great architects since they were able to build these high cliffs out of limestone. Due to the presence of the limestone, they also mined salt from the site apart from farming.

Apart from farming, the sin aqua was also great artisans who made the artifacts they used to make needles, grinding stones to grind corn. The facility though a historic site has no camping requirements but has parks consisting of hotels in the nearby camps in the Arizona.

From the look of the environment, it shows that the early inhabitants were very inventive-the artifacts and the defense wall and adaptive to this environment.The area is composed of wells and a some species of animals. The well, an important part of the monument is very unique and sited about eleven miles from the Montezuma castle. It comprises of ditch which was built many hundreds of years ago, sinaguan cliff houses and pueblo ruins.

Summers in the valley is usually hot and dry with alittle bit cold nights which mainly occurs during the months of May to September. During winter seasons, the valley is sometimes covered with snow with lower temperatures (14-45 degrees).

Another important feature in the monument is the hummingbird which is one of the many species of birds in the Arizona, the nest measures as the size of a walnut.

The place, from the description, looks very attractive for leisure. The natural scenes of the well and the parks motivate one to visit the monument and again. The presence of the hummingbirds and their nests also motivates one to the nature.

The work of these ancient people how creative these people were. The enormous building also shows that these people were great architectures and artists. The beautiful scenery of the cave and its surroundings also tells people of the culture of the ancient inhabitants. It also shows .It therefore mean that architecture started from the ancient period and has spread up to the present years.

Montezuma Slough vs. Joice Island Slough

Joice Island Slough VS Montezuma SloughMarshes or Estuarine are found between open salt water of the bays and the uplands of cost. Marshes are usually protected from waves by natural sources, which helps create breeding place for species absolutely necessary for the prosperity of our food chain. Marshes can also be found by fresh water that drains into bay. Different PH levels and subtle and settled water waves make marshes different from lakes, rivers, and sea. Marsh water is usually basic due to the calcium carbonate levels.Suisun Marsh is one of the largest brackish water marshes on the west coast. The Marsh supports sensitive plant species such as the Suisun thistle, which is a Marsh endemic and found nowhere else in the world.

Dissolved oxygen, salinity levels, plant community composition, and the size of marsh, trophic gradient, all effect the biological makeup of marshes. In the Journal of Plankton Research, study conducted by Ward Appeltan in estuaries showed that “…factors such as salinity, temperature and oxygen in addition to biotic factors such as predation, competition, and food supply determines the population size of a marsh.” (Ward Appeltans, 2003). Moreover an experiment conducted, over the span of five years that sought the relationship between macrophytes , phytoplankton, and nutrient concentration, indicated that estuarine with high level of submerged macrophytes inhibit high concentrations of phytoplankton and nutrient concentration (Kyle D Zimmer, 2003). Meanwhile, another Journal of Plankton Research conducted an experiment that showed that within an estuarine, the presence of zooplankton concentration depends upon the depth of the water of an estuary (Gyung Soo Park, 2000). Sometimes the invertebrate species like small fish move to different places, as supported by Paterson experiment, because “… shallow estuarine may provide refugia for fishes vulnerable to predation.”(Paterson &Whitfield, 2000)

After analyzing all of these scientific journals, it was obvious that different amount of PH levels, dissolved oxygen levels, and tropic gradient in an estuary will yield a totally different habitats. Moreover, we related that different size of slough would have different biological makeup from each other due their difference. In our experiment we took samples of zooplanktons, chlorophyll, and water from a Montezuma Slough, medium slough, and Joice Island Slough to find out things that are common and different to their biological makeup.

This experiment was conducted at two different sites in Suisun marsh. Our first site, Montezuma slough, was located at Belden’s Landing. We collected samples here on fishing pier and boat dock. The second site was Joice Island Bridge, located less than two miles from the site. Here we collected samples when we were on the bridge and below it from Cutoff Slough.

On six October of 2004, we took our first samples from the bottom of the marsh. We used dredge to get the samples of macro zooplankton and benthic organisms. The dredge was used to collect samples from marsh bottom. The dredge was used at the fishing pier. The particular dredge we used was Petit Ponar dredge. The dredge was loaded with spring so that it could close just by few jerks of the rope, capturing the bottom soil sample, once lowered. As the dredge closed it trapped good amount of fine, thick, dark, murky silt from the marsh bottom. Markings, on the rope that was lowered down, helped us know the depth at which we took the sample. The dredge was also tied with another rope for safety reasons. We dredged our sample from two-meter depth of bottom of Montezuma slough. When we pulled up the dredge onto the pier it was opened and the sample of mud was dumped into a bucket that had 500-micron mesh bottom. After unneeded residue of pieces of glass, bottle, and bottle caps were removed from the dredge sample, the bucket was taken down to the boat dock to be rinsed. The mesh basket was rinsed when we lowered it into the slough water fourth of the way, and twisted it left to right until the water under the bucket got clear. This procedure took five to seven minutes.

We took two samples from Montezuma slough and one from Cutoff, Joice Island, and slough using the same procedure as described above. The sample collected from Montezuma was heavy fines and dark, while Cutoff sample was rocky and brown. The rocks at the bottom of Joice Island Slough gave us trouble getting a good dredge sample. After many attempts to get as much of the mud, we were successful to get one sample that was qualified to be used in the experiment. Once the sampled were rinsed at the dock, they were put inside a bottle along with formaldehyde and red dye for visibility and perseverance.

On the fishing pier a special contraption was used for collecting the chlorophyll levels, at surface and one meter deep, from the Montezuma Slough. A wine bottle was attached to the dredge with rope allowing the opening to be positioned at approximately one meter deep. Then a cork was inserted into the opening with a rope attached. The dredge was used to weigh down the wine bottle. After dropping the dredge into the water and letting it reach bottom the rope attached to the cork was pulled, by someone on the pier, so as to sample water from one meter deep. After letting the bottle fill it was removed from the slough and the water collected was poured into a 50mL graduated cylinder. The water from the cylinder was poured over a filter using the Schroeter Method of Chlorophyll Extracting with a Turner Flouorometer. This entire method was repeated at the same site to check for consistency in the chlorophyll levels at one meter deep. However, at the start the wine bottle was simply dropped into the slough and allowed to float until water flowed into the opening from the surface level. The same methods were applied while collecting chlorophyll from the Cutoff Slough; however, no samples were collected from the surface and only one sample was collected from approximately one meter deep.

Water quality was conducted, using the YSI 85 water-quality probe, at the boat dock of Montezuma Slough and beneath the Joice Island Bridge at the Cutoff Slough. Three individual groups took separate measurements and recorded the data collected from the Montezuma Slough. The readings were taken at surface, one meter deep, and three meters deep.

Graph and result tables clearly show that Montezuma had higher dissolved oxygen percentage, percent saturation, conductivity, specific conductivity, and PH levels at almost every level of depth. Specific conductivity and conductivity is higher in Joice Island slough but only at two meter surface, while it also has higher temperature. On the other hand, chlorophyll concentration, as the result table and graphs show, in Joice Island slough was three times as much as it was found in medium size, Montezuma Slough, at one meter depth.

Montezuma had three times as much concentration of macro zooplankton present than Joice Island Slough had data shows that benthic organisms like Oligochaeta was found in enormous amount in Montezuma and Codylophora lacustris and Laonome sp were three times as much in Joice Island Slough compared to Montezuma. Only one Neanthes Limnicola, Native polychaeta specie, was found in both of the marshes. In addition, one Isopoda, Corbicula luminea (Bivalvia) and two Potamacorbula amurensis (Bivalvia) were found but only in Joice Island slough.

High concentration of dissolved oxygen, PH levels, percent saturation, specific conductivity, and conductivity are the reason why Montezuma slough has three times as much macrozooplankton, Hydrozoa, and Oligochaeta species compared to Joice Island slough. On the other hand in Joice Island slough, high surface to volume ration has caused three times as much chlorophyll concentration. This confirms our hypothesis that different slough sizes have different biological makeup.

We found out that water chemistry was directly proportionalto the number of macrozooplanktons. Our data matches Ward Appeltan’s research article as he said that high dissolved oxygen in marsh water attract animal species and causes them to be more successful. He also mentioned that In the Journal of Plankton Research, experiment conducted in estuaries showed that “ spatial shift of population of Eurytemora affins( Copepoda, Calanida) from brakish water towards lower salinities in the Schelde estuary coincided with an increase oxygen concentration in freshwater zone.(Ward Appeltans, 2003). Another experiment conducted by Gregory hood proved that “the amount of organic material in channel sediment scaled negatively with channel size as did the abundance of benthic sources deposits.” (Hood, Gregory W., 2002), which means that if the amount of chlorophyll is greater in a marsh then the size of the marsh will be smaller because the organic decay is produced by dead chlorophylls. This also proves and supports our data and hypothesis.

It is also logical that if chlorophyll only grows on the surface of marsh water it will be more in small marsh compared to big one because the surface area of medium size marsh has a lot of depth and volume but small size slough has higher surface area compared to its volume and depth. Moreover it’s very well-known that oxygen is absolutely necessary for the survival, and if it is more at one marsh than the other one the species would prefer and try to get into the one with high dissolved oxygen levels. Another reason why there are more macrozooplankton and their predators is that oxygen also provide refuge to those invertebrates that are connected to the food chain of macrozooplankton.

The numbers of macrozooplankton were great in Montezuma slough it caused Maeotias inexpectas, their predators, to be successful and prosper in greater amount, and low numbers of copepods in Joice Island slough, caused predetor, Maeotias, to be less similarly. However polchaeta were more in Joice Island Slough than Montezuma.

Marsh was smelly gathered up water to me before but after I found out that it can be so unique depending upon just its size was amazing. Not only does it show that it provides safe haven for native species and some other animal and plant species, it provides a fresh water source for the birds and humans during drought seasons, and acts a big shelter that keeps those species necessary for the food chain alive. If these marshes are destroyed than they will have a big impact on our chain of survival. In fact freshwater sloughs are so good that big projects are going to build artificial slough for the good of the environment.

(Gregory W Hood, 2002 Relationships among nutrients, phytoplankton, macrophytes, and fish in prairie wetlands.), (Ward Appeltans et al, 2003 Zooplankton in the Schelde estuary (Belgium/The Netherlands). The distribution of Eurytemora affinis: effect of oxygen?), (Kyle D Zimmer Butler, Malcolm G., mark a. Hanson,, 2003 Relationships among nutreints, phytoplankton, macrophytes, and fish in prairie wetlands), (Gyung Soo Park, Marshal, Harold g. , 2000 Estuarine relationship between zooplankton community structure and trophic gradients), ( Paterson &Whitfield, 2000 Do Shallow-water Habitats Function Refugia for Juvinile Fishes?)

Bibliography:

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Marshal, Harold g., and Gyung s. Park. “Estuarine relationship between

zooplankton community structure and trophic gradients.” Journal of Plankton

Research (2000). 05 Nov. 2004

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Appeltans, Ward , et al. “Zooplankton in the Schelde estuary (Belgium/The

Netherlands). The distribution of Eurytemora affinis: effect of oxygen?”

Journal of Plankton Research (2003). 05 Nov. 2004

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Kantrudi, Harold a., and Robert E. Stewart. “Vegetation of Prairie Potholes,

North Dakota, in Relation to Quality of Water and Other Environmental Factors.”

Geological Survey Professional Paper 585-D (1972). 05 Nov. 2004

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Butler, Malcolm G., mark a. Hanson, and Kyle D. Zimmer. “Relationships among

nutreints, phytoplankton, macrophytes, and fish in prairie wetlands .”

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2003). 05 Nov. 2004

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Hood, Gregory W. “Relationships among nutreints, phytoplankton, macrophytes,

and fish in prairie wetlands .” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic

Sciences (2002). 05 Nov. 2004

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6)Paterson, A W., and A K. Whitfield. “Do Shallow-water Habitats Function Refugiafor Juvinile Fishes?” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science (2000).

Motivation in the work place

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Motivation in the work place

In any given workplace, it is of essence that persons working there are motivated so as to enhance productivity and overall performance. Bearing in mind that all people are different it too takes diverse means to keep them motivated and into their work. Depending on the nature of the organization and nature of work, different strategies can be adopted.

The use of external motivators is one strategy that can be applied to stir up employees’ morale. This is most applicable in cases where the workers lack self-motivation from within. This comes in the form of rewards and recognition for tasks well done. These makes the workers to feel important and hence perform their tasks better. An overuse of such may lead to decline in productivity among the workers (Benowitz, 2011).

Internal motivation comes in handy when the personnel have a touch of high self-motivation for what they do. In such a case, the workers need to know and see the importance of their effort in any task that they undertake. A say in the goals set also does go a long way to boost morale as it makes the worker feel appreciated by those in charge.

These are among many other ways of improving performance, which include incentives, implementing revised management programmes and evaluation of salaries depending on workers efforts and responsibilities. To deal with employees’ resistance to productivity, management can develop a rotational programme to shift employees from one department to another periodically to minimise boredom and disinterest in their work. Having an open-door policy can also open up employees to management hence address any issues that come up which can derail productivity if they are not handled promptly and carefully.

Under management philosophy, the creation of a favourable work climate and managements approach to motivation is core. This varies depending on the structure of the organization. In a case where specialization is applied, there’s more efficiency as tasks are defined. However, this is disadvantageous as it limits employees and hinders self-actualization. Another practice that can be taken up by management is behavioural approach, which deals with the way managers treat employees. Webstar (2011) notes treating employees as mature adult and giving additional responsibilities helps to boost morale. There’s also increased productivity when employees are treated positively as responsible adults.

Another motivational theory that can be put in place is the expectancy theory in which the motivation of an individual increases as long as there is a clear reflection of the effort exerted and the reward received. This is to mean that the reward should be worth the effort and the management might have to pay more in this case.

The expectancy theory is one that takes into consideration the rationality of the human brain as explained Reader (2011). According to Reader (2011) if one expects something for a task completed then one likely to take up a more challenging task as more is expected. This theory bears an element of subjectivity as the decision making process is hard to measure as it depends on one’s perception of what will come out of a certain action. The implication of this one is largely dissatisfaction when the workers expectations are not met, in this case, if reward given doesn’t appear worth the task.

The theory may practically bring in more expenses but has proved to be more popular in many companies (Webstar, 2010). The uniqueness of this theory is that it provides detailed steps that may improve a business and aid in its success. It encourages businesses to develop close associations between reward and behaviour, maintain consistency and involve employees in decision making processes. The overall impact is clearly positive for all parties, the management and employees.

In sum, the management in organisations usually aim at improve performance of their organisation. However, employees always reject these efforts knowingly or unknowingly. In this regard, using motivational approaches to motivate employees to improve their performance becomes mandatory. The management can apply various motivational theories such as expectancy theory, and behavioural approaches.

References

Webstar. A. (2012). How Various Motivational Strategies Affect Productivity in a Selected Workplace. Retrieved on 1 April 2012 from http://www.ehow.com/info_8019848_various-affect-productivity-selected-workplace.html

Benowitz, E. A. (2011). Cliffs Quick Review: Principles of Management. John Wiley & Sons

Reader. C. (2011). Expectancy Theory Compared to Other Motivational Theories. Retrieved on 1 April 2012 from http://www.ehow.com/info_8267709_expectancy-compared-other-motivation-theories.html

Case analysis using ABCX model

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Introduction

Family stress is one of the issues most people have to go through. This is because factors and conditions bring themselves, and a person has to think of a way to deal with them. Sometimes family issues break a person while other times they make a person become better after going through the challenges. Therefore there is no fixed outcome, and there are no selected solutions to the problems we face in our families day by day since most of them have not been experienced before by the person going through them. Therefore, in this work, the suggestions are given even though hoped to work if it was a real situation; there is no complete assurance for them to bring to a standstill the problem at hand. Using the ABCX formula, I will be able to develop the most suitable suggestions of what should be done about the issue at hand. I will discuss the second case study whereby the mother has breast cancer and is uninsured while the father has a work-related injury. Therefore ill look deeply into this case study, analyse it and suggest the possible ways for the family to get out of this troubling issue. I will use both the ABC formula and the double ABCX model for this analysis.

ABCX and double ABCX models

Reuben Hill came up with this model in 1949 though he never labelled them as ABCX until 1958. This is a model to explain “the crisis-proneness and freedom from crisis among families” (Hill, 1958). Boss (2002) refers to the hill as the father of family therapy because he is the person who came up with the very first model, which tried to help solve the challenges of most families. Even though his theory and model mainly focus on the pre-crisis situation, it still has a role to play in explaining the problematic family experiences.

After hill developed this in 1949, Joan Patterson and Hamilton McCuban developed it, and they came up with the double ABCX model that focused on the pre-crisis and focused on the post-crisis. Therefore this became very important because families needed this even more rather than the pre-crisis explanation which never gave them the solutions but helped them focus on the issues at hand and the issues before the crisis came to be. Therefore this model allows them to understand the issue at hand and helps them make decisions on where to look for assistance so that this problem does not make them unable to do anything constructive.

The ABCX is a term whose letters stand for different issues in the family. A represents the crisis precipitating event. This can be viewed as something which comes up, and the family was not prepared or was not even aware that it will happen (Hill, 1958). In the case study 2, this issue is that the mother who is Mary is almost sacked by her hours being reduced in the place where she was working. In this case study, multiple crises, precipitate events, and all of them affect this family. Apart from Mary having her hours reduced at the place she was working, she also gets diagnosed with stage three breast cancer. This, in any instance, can shutter anyone who goes through it. Even more devastating is the condition of Joe who gets an accident at the place where they had been working and therefore cannot go out anymore to work as they used to do before. This is a challenging situation for the family, and consequently, they have to find a solution. All of these explained are crisis precipitating factors.

The B in the model stands for the family’s crisis meeting resources, and therefore in the case of Joe and Mary, there is a family crisis meeting resources condition. This s the fact that Mary’s mother is mentioned and she still lives close to them. Therefore this is a solution for a short term period. This is because if she was not there, they could get into crisis. We can also assume that Mary and Joe have been saving some amount of money and that their savings at this time are another crisis meeting resources condition. Therefore it is these two conditions which make them not get into crisis immediately. Otherwise, if the two states were not available, they could get into trouble very fast.

The C in the model stands for the definition of A by the family. Whatever the family defines as A is what determines their level of suffering and crisis. A family can see A as an enormous challenge; this may make them begin suffering emotionally even before the crisis comes. Another family may see A as a time for them to grow; this is because some families will see challenges as a time of growth and learning how to deal with different things which happen to them in their lives. Therefore, what Mary and Joe define their multiple crises precipitating events is what determines if they suffer very much or suffer less.

D represents what the family thinks and says the event taking place is. Therefore, if the family sees it as a big challenge, it will be a big challenge to them. However, if they see it as an opportunity to get out of their comfort zones and go out to the world and look for solutions, then that means they will not suffer very much. Therefore, Mary and Joe have the responsibility of making sure that they make of this event the most positive concept in their minds and thus ease the level of crisis they might have to meet.

The X in the model signifies the crisis. This means that Mary and Joe’s lives will have to change at this time for some time before they get back to normal. According to Hill crisis results into “slowed up affectional and emotion-satisfying performances”. Therefore at this time, they may have to do anything to be satisfied emotionally and not have the affectionate intimacy they may have enjoyed before.

This is the pre-crisis condition, and it is always challenging to go through. Now focusing on post-crisis, there is a possibility of preventing some things from happening. The double ABCX model focuses firstly on the causative factors of the situation at hand, and in the case of Joe and Mary, these are not many because their problems come instantly and they have to face them.

The coping option is always tricky because to some extent the injury of Joe is so bad he will have to live with that for the rest of his life, and he can’t change that, but he has to cope and adapt to it. On the side of Mary, she may have to learn how to live with cancer for some time before she gets chemotherapy, and she heals.

Plan of action

In their anguish, there are still things they can do to make sure that the event or the issue at hand does not affect them adversely. There are these suggestions in the double ABCX model, and employing them may make the family live happily once again. The possible things to do for the family include:

The family to ask Mary’s mother for support and financial assistance at present.

The family to use their savings wisely.

The children to transfer to public schools if they were in private school and as well the public schools where the cost of their education is l

The family moved to a new smaller house to avoid significant sums of money spent on paying for the home of other services.

The family to engage more spiritually if they are spiritual.

The family to engage in more positive activities and try to be positive and avoid stressing over any issue but think of all possible solutions.

Conclusion

Therefore, with the above discussion, it is okay to state that challenges even though faced in our families we are the people who decide and determine where the effects and the issues concerned with the challenges end up. Even though it is always difficult to be calm and keep a positive mind, people should do so that at the end of the day they do not remain in the problem but find a solution and change how they handle what they are going through.

References

Hill, R. (1986). Life cycle stages for types of single-parent families: Of family development theory. Family Relations, 19-29.

Hill, R. (1958). Sociology of Marriage and Family Behaviour, I945-56. Current Sociology, 7(1), 1-33.

Bickel, J. (2011). Families & Change: Coping With Stressful Events and Transitions. Journal of Family Strengths, 11(1), 28.

Action Research Plan

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Action Research Plan

Introduction

The problem presented in this research paper is students’ lack of academic support at home and their lack of preparedness and confidence in the classroom. Parents are fundamental to students’ success in preparing and coping with homework (Grinshtain & Harpaz, 2021). According to the authors, parents’ positive help is seen in guiding and directing students to complete their homework. The supportive behaviors of parents are associated with increased children’s engagement with homework tasks (Grinshtain & Harpaz, 2021). However, research reveals that some students fail to complete their homework regularly due to a lack of parental academic support at home (Treadwell, 2007). The author further explains that parents fail to assist their children in completing their homework because they do not care or do not know. On a different note, Grinshtain and Harpaz (2021). This lack of parental support and academic support contributes to children’s lack of preparation or confidence in the classroom. Also, having parents or other major adults, such as teachers, who are overly harsh can lead to a traumatic upbringing and, in turn, poor school achievement and a subsequent lack of self-confidence. I am interested in researching and solving this problem because a lack of confidence can lead to negative outcomes, including poor academic performance. Students with low self-esteem or confidence are less likely to study and take academically healthy risks because they distrust their abilities (Treadwell, 2007). While we were in primary school, some students claimed that their parents did not support them with their homework, and this affected their academic performance. I want to shed light on the effects of such parents’ behaviors.

Competency represented by the problem

The competency represented by the problem of lack of parental academic support and student lack of reparation and confidence in the classroom is the ability of teachers to recognize factors affecting the student learning and demonstrate this knowledge by planning engaging and effective instruction and appropriate assessments. Based on this competency, the teacher should understand the relevance of self-directed learning and plan assessment and instruction that promote students’ motivation and their sense of responsibility and ownership for their learning. This competence will be helpful for students who do not have academic support at home because they will learn to take ownership of their learning. Also, instruction that improves motivation will boost the students’ motivation and confidence for those who are unprepared or lack confidence in the classroom.

Intervention to help the problem

Inclusive education is a teaching approach that emphasizes the structure of educational environments to guarantee that all students can learn and participate fully in class. An inclusive classroom not only welcomes and supports students with different learning styles and aptitudes but also gives gifted kids challenging chances to grow as learners. Recognizing the value of people from all backgrounds and socioeconomic positions is essential to being welcoming and inclusive (Grinshtain &Harpaz, 2021). Our efforts to instill this concept in our children will pay dividends in the form of a more welcoming and welcoming community. All children need to feel like they have a place in an inclusive school or classroom for it to be successful. That can’t happen until we have open discussions about diversity and learn to value the unique contributions that people with different backgrounds and skill sets can make. A welcoming environment is one in which everyone is valued and included.

References

Grinshtain, Y., & Harpaz, G. (2021). Whose Homework Is It? Different Types of Parents’ Dependent Help-Giving in Homework. The Elementary School Journal, 122(2), 233–256.

Treadwell, T. (2007). A Research into the Problems of Students Not Completing Homework Assignments in the Middle School: The Case of Weaver Middle School in Bibb County, Georgia. The Corinthian, 8(1), 8.

Case Analysis

MARS501 Final assignment

Date

Hallo and welcome to my presentation. My name is _____ and I will take you through my thoughts and analysis of Case 2 (KFC) and Case 5 (Toyota AYGO).

Case Study 2

Overview

KFC was battling the classic resistance to change from it loyal consumer base who were insistently complaining over the chips/fries being not to the satisfaction of customers. There was a pressing need to change the recipe for the product in the UK and Ireland markets. Pereira et al. (2019) express that customer satisfaction is among the key performance indicators in the food industry, requiring organizations to take customer feedback seriously.

The new product did very well in the research stages but ended up being poorly received in test restaurants. Particularly, the problem was because a majority of loyal customers did not approve of the changes made to the product and preferred the old chips while the vocal minority did not approve of the old product.

KFC created a change in perception by employing a marketing campaign that would enable the existing customers to approve of the new product while catering to the need of the new consumers.

To manage the transition, the challenge was to make sure that every customer group was heard. Marketing campaigns addressing the benefits of the new product failed. KFC took a risky approach that used behavioural economics by making the older chips the “monster” through highlighting the criticism and painting a picture of the new fries as the “saviour”.

By using print and digital media, criticism and abuses relating to the older product were amplified to a point where consumers turned to the new chips having been exposed to the issues of the older fries. Behavioural economics is noted by Krajnović, Sikirić, and Bosna (2018) to be a critical influencer to the decision making processes that individuals use in purchasing. Here, the use of this concept paid off as the company gained a larger consumer base in the UK and Ireland.

Marketing Concepts and the Link to the Case

There are two emergent marketing concepts that are relevant to the KFC case study. First, the consumer decision-making concept is highlighted as very important for organizations in terms of meeting the primary objective in profit maximization. In the development of the new marketing campaign, KFC realized that there was a need to alter how consumers perceived the product. Soodan and Pandey (2016) highlight the need for a company to use buying behaviour and the process of consumer purchasing decision making to formulate the marketing mix. In the case study, KFC’s new product was problematic to two consumer groups as noted earlier. Those resistant to change wanted no alterations to the product while the vocal minority were unsatisfied with the old chips/fries. Therefore, the company settled on making a new product and using the promotion segment to create attention and to shift the perception of the loyal group of consumers. Behavioural economics were used to create a psychological campaign that would alter the perceptions held by the existing customers while ensuring new consumers were satisfied with the new product.

The second marketing concept that the case used is the idea of advertising. The objectives of advertising and the appeals used by an organization to meet advertising needs are explored. Advertising is presented by Cole, DeNardin, & Clow (2017) as an effective way to communicate with a target market in the process of trying to maximize sales. In the KFC problem, loyal customers were not ready to embrace the new changes to the product. However, KFC was required to make the changes in order to stay relevant and to ensure that the new generation customers, who are very vocal on social media, approved of their products. Therefore, the marketing concept of appealing to customers through advertisements was employed, adapting to the use of social media marketing to cater for the needs of the vocal consumers, and at the same time being simple and gentle not to lose the existing consumers.

Questions

Question 1

As illustrated in this case, satisfied customers rarely desire change to a product because they have proven it to satisfy their needs, wants, or demands. I have resisted trying a new product before because I felt it would not meet my needs as much as an older or current product did. For example, being an Audi loyal customer, I really loved the second-generation vehicles that gave a lot of comfort, style, power, and a small engine that was very economical. However, the third generation cars were a bit of a challenge for me because of the change in design and the exterior look. I felt that the sportier look would not be as economical as my old car. Kumar, Dalla Pozza, and Ganesh (2013) note that the main concern of a loyal/satisfied customer is that a change in product would not meet the same expectations as previously held. I felt that some aspects of the new product would not completely satisfy me.

Question 2

Taste scores improved across every measure for those aware of the campaign because they had different expectations. Expectations is defined by Yu et al. (2018) as the set of actions or behaviour describing peoples’ anticipation when interacting with products or brands. Those aware of the campaign already had their own summarization of the product before the campaign. Therefore, upon the implementation of changes to the product, they interacted with the new product while basing their decisions on the old product, thus leading to higher satisfaction.

Case Study 5

Overview

The case study looks at Toyota’s journey to making the AYGO a favourite of a specific target market in its large consumer base. The main problem it was facing was that the minicar market segment was declining s people tended to favour crossover models. The AYGO did not have any major updates that would woo existing consumers to buy the same brand. Therefore, Toyota needed to attract a new audience for the AYGO coming from young, pre-family, and emotional decision making categories. The company also wanted to retain its value hunters consumer base made up of 45 year-olds in the post-family, pragmatic, and rational buying category. Because of the versatility of the automotive industry, Slater et al. (2007) stress the need to have a specific target market before making a product. Toyota’s new task was to create a strategy that would appeal to the aforementioned categories while maintaining relevance and increasing sales. The marketing approach taken was simple: a vehicle that enables novelty and discovery and allows for a spontaneous lifestyle, in line with the current mobile and social culture. The Just Go campaign, saw sales increase and the minicar gain a new market category and name.

Marketing Concepts and Connection to the Case

Two marketing concepts are visible in this case study; the usefulness of market segmentation and the concept of market targeting and positioning. Market segmentation refers to a marketing strategy where select groups in the consumer base are not only identified but also pursued in order to present products to them so as to appeal to their consumption interests (Cai, Gautier, and Wolthoff, 2017). The market can be segmented into different categories including the demographic, behavioural, psychographic, and geographic. In the case of Toyota, the marketers used behavioural and psychographic characteristics to create a product that appealed to different consumers. The Toyota AYGO was marketed as a car that would cater for the needs of the young, pre-family, and emotional decision makers, as well as to the 45 year-olds in the post-family, pragmatic, and rational buying category. The AYGO was promoted as a partner that would satisfy both the psychological and the behavioural tenets of the target audience.

The concept of targeting and positioning was also used in the case study. Targeting is mentioned by Paruchuri (2019) to be a process that helps to identify the most attractive markets in line with the segments mentioned earlier. Positioning then follows up to communicate a brand to the targeted market. The aim of Toyota was to make sure that sales for the AYGO model increased and that the car occupied a significant portion of the minicar market segment. To meet this strategy, Toyota made product improvements and increased promotion in order to better target their audiences and to position (communicate) the said advantages to the market.

Questions

Question 1

One notable persona relevant to Toyota’s strategy includes young woman, single, freshly hires, little disposable income, interested in light travelling, adventure and thrill seeking. This persona includes young females out of college and working in a part time job that has a lot of free time. They are not decision makers and hold little to no influence in real life. They are huge on social media with significant following on social sites such as Facebook and Instagram. A day in their lives would include going to local eateries with a group of friends and meeting later for laughs and a good time. This persona would be frustrated by the inconveniences of public transport but also prefers to have a personal means of transport, therefore making the AYGO a great choice for the demands and needs.

The second persona is a 50 year old divorcee living in the city suburbs but craving a quiet lifestyle spent alone with occasional meeting of friends and family. This individual has little to no income and is a very cautious and rational spender. They would find a lot of pleasure in a small car that is able to take them for quiet drives, park easily, and serve as a companion for the lonely trips to neighbouring cities to meet with family. The hustles of public transport and new age online cabs would be very frustrating for the elderly man, thus making the AYGO the perfect car for his needs.

Question 2

A major risk of a strategy seeking to appeal to new consumers who are quite different to the current core consumer group is that they may not be as profitable as another market segment. For example, a new consumer group may not align best with the product, therefore end up not demanding more of the product as hoped.

Thank you for your time and now will be a good time to ask any questions you may have.

References

Cai, X., Gautier, P. A., & Wolthoff, R. P. (2017). Search frictions, competing mechanisms and

optimal market segmentation. Journal of Economic theory, 169, 453-473.

Cole, H. S., DeNardin, T., & Clow, K. E. (2017). Small service businesses: Advertising attitudes

and the use of digital and social media marketing. Services Marketing Quarterly, 38(4), 203-212.

Krajnović, A., Sikirić, D., & Bosna, J. (2018). Digital marketing and behavioral

economics. CroDiM: International Journal of Marketing Science, 1(1), 33-46.

Kumar, V., Dalla Pozza, I., & Ganesh, J. (2013). Revisiting the satisfaction–loyalty relationship:

empirical generalizations and directions for future research. Journal of retailing, 89(3), 246-262.

Paruchuri, H. (2019). Market Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning Using Machine

Learning. Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 8(1), 7-14.

Pereira, M. T., Bento, M. I., Ferreira, L. P., Sá, J. C., & Silva, F. J. G. (2019). Using Six Sigma

to analyse Customer Satisfaction at the product design and development stage. Procedia Manufacturing, 38, 1608-1614.

Slater, S. F., Hult, G. T. M., & Olson, E. M. (2007). On the importance of matching strategic

behavior and target market selection to business strategy in high-tech markets. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 35(1), 5-17.

Soodan, V., & Pandey, A. C. (2016). Influence of emotions on consumer buying

behavior. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Business and Economics, 4(2), 163-181.

Yu, Q., Allon, G., Bassamboo, A., & Iravani, S. (2018). Managing customer expectations and

priorities in service systems. Management Science, 64(8), 3942-3970.

Act Utilitarianism

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Act Utilitarianism

Explanation of Act Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism is a type of utilitarian theory of ethics that affirms that an individual’s act is only seen to be morally satisfactory if and only if it results in the best probable outcome for that specific situation (Dimmock & Fisher, 2017). Act Utilitarianism is most often linked to two British philosophers considered the greatest utilitarians, John Stuart Mill ad Jeremy Bentham. They established the utilitarian theory in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Significant implications arise from adopting a utilitarian outlook on how we should consider living an ethical life. Since utilitarianism gives equivalent weight to the well-being of all people, it proposes that we need to make helping other people a big part of our life as it values the well-being of all persons equally (Scarre, 2020). Act utilitarianism is an ethical principle that makes statements about identifying whether acts are good or bad, and it tries to justify these assertions by appealing to the concept of utility. Act utilitarianism precisely does this by considering repercussions and inquiring as to whether or not acts affect other people positively or negatively. Good acts are those that increase overall happiness and lessen suffering in the world, whereas negative deeds are those that have the opposite effect.

Act utilitarians believe we must carry out the activity that will produce the most excellent net utility when faced with a decision about what to do. In their opinion, the utility principle, which states that one should do whatever will create the most outstanding overall outcomes, should be implemented individually for each circumstance. In most cases, Act utilitarianism is often contrasted with ruling utilitarianism. While the act utilitarian is concerned solely with the effects of a particular action, the rule utilitarian is interested in how strictly adhering to rules of behavior affects outcomes. When it comes to Act utilitarianism, an action’s positivity or negativity is based on the action’s impact on the world. The idea of action in act utilitarianism is the one that positively affects the world by generating the most incredible amount of collective happiness for the people. Act utilitarianism, in contrast to rule utilitarianism, gives no weight to whether or not the actor behaved under any rules. Like other varieties of utilitarianism, act utilitarianism is a sort of consequentialism (Anjum & Mumford, 2017).

Pseudo-objections (Arguments) against AU and how Mill Replies

One of the pseudo-objections against AU is that happiness is unattainable, and thus it cannot be a rational aim for human life. Also, life goes on without happiness, and many good people have become virtuous by rejecting happiness. To begin with, Mill replies to this objection by arguing that it is an exaggeration to claim that humans cannot be happy. According to Mill, happiness is experiencing fleeting moments of ecstasy amid a life relatively free of hardships. Besides, he argues that this state of affairs is achievable and would be so for almost everyone if only the current educational and societal structures were altered. Mill believes most individuals can be happy, provided they get an education promoting the correct values. Next, Mill responds to the claim that most reasonable people in history are those who have chosen to forego happiness. Mill admits that this argument is valid, and he supports it by acknowledging that there are martyrs who renounce their happiness. However, Mill contends that martyrs must renounce their happiness for a higher cause (Mill, 2021). Besides, Mill acknowledges that selflessness, the desire to put the happiness of others before one’s own, is the greatest virtue. Mill’s replies are convincing since the worth of other people’s happiness is implied in the sacrifice so that others will not have to suffer as much as you have.

The second pseudo-objection against AU is that it leaves individuals “cold and unsympathizing” as it focuses exclusively on the outcomes of individual’s activities instead of on the morality or immorality of the people who do those acts. The first reply of Mill in response to the argument that utilitarianism is immoral because it does not take into account the character of the person when determining whether or not an act is right or wrong is that this is a critique of all morality; no system of ethics evaluates the character of persons who commit acts independently of the actions themselves. Mill says that if this objection means that many utilitarians fail to recognize other desired “beauties of character” but only consider utilitarianism as an exclusive measure of morality, then this is a reasonable indictment of many utilitarians (Mill, 2021). This reply is convincing because Mill argues that moralists of all stripes make a significant error when they focus only on developing their moral sentiments to neglect their artistic understandings or sympathies.

The third pseudo-objection against Au is that it glorifies base pleasures and aims to reduce the meaning of life to pleasure. To this argument, Mill argues that the pleasures available to humans are much greater than those available to animals and that once people become conscious of their greater capacities, they would never be satisfied to let them go uncultivated. While it is true that certain pleasures might be considered “basic,” that does not imply they are all equal; instead, some are more worthwhile in and of themselves. Consequently, utilitarianism assesses an action’s morality based on the number and quality of the pleasures it brings about. In his reply, Mill insists on how to know how to differentiate between lower and higher-quality pleasures. According to Mill, individuals always prefer one pleasure over another, even if it comes with discomfort. If individuals are unwilling to swap that pleasure for another, it means that pleasure is of better quality (Mill, 2021). This reply is also convincing because Mill argues it is an “unquestionable truth” that when all forms of pleasure are available equally, individuals will choose the ones that stimulate their “higher” faculties. No rational human being would ever want to assume the traits of a lower life form; similarly, no intelligent individual would ever deliberately choose to learn nothing.

Explain and critique several serious objections (arguments) leveled against AU.

One of the severe objections against AU is that it does not account for justice concerns. We can conceive scenarios in which a particular action plan might result in significant advantages for the community, even though they would be manifestly unjust. I agree with the objection since Act utilitarianism only focuses on ensuring that the action taken results in the greatest happiness for the people without considering whether the actions followed the rules. Some actions might result in greater happiness, but they could still be unjust to others. In addition, another serious objection leveled against AU is that people are required to make an excessive number of sacrifices, which makes it too demanding (De Lazari et al., 2013). The argument contends that utilitarianism mandates that we must always act in a manner that maximizes utility, which runs counter to the morality we intuitively understand and the morality we have deliberated about. I agree with this argument because when it comes to AU, we have to sacrifice our happiness to make other people happy.AU demands that we do what results in maximum utility, even if it means sacrificing our happiness.

References

Anjum, R. L., & Mumford, S. D. (2017). A philosophical argument against evidence‐based policy. Journal of evaluation in clinical practice, 23(5), 1045-1050.

De Lazari-Radek, K., & Singer, P. (2013). How much more demanding is utilitarianism than common sense morality? Revue internationale de philosophie, 266(4), 427-438.

Dimmock, M., & Fisher, A. (2017). Ethics for A-level. Open Book Publishers. DOI https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0125Mill, J. S. (2021). On Liberty: And Utilitarianism. SSL.

Scarre, G. (2020). Utilitarianism. Routledge.