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Motivation is the process, which enhance the performance

Motivation

A Research Paper

Dell

7/8/2014

Table of Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627646” Introduction PAGEREF _Toc392627646 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627647” Objective PAGEREF _Toc392627647 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627648” Hypothesis PAGEREF _Toc392627648 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627649” Research Analysis PAGEREF _Toc392627649 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627650” Research findings PAGEREF _Toc392627650 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627651” Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc392627651 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc392627652” References PAGEREF _Toc392627652 h 9

IntroductionMotivation is the process, which enhance the performance. Motivation can be defined as the state of internal activation in the individuals, which gives rise to a chain reaction based on their needs and satisfaction. (Bindra & Stewart, 1971).

Motivation can influence the activity of the individual person, which immediately reflects in the performance. This means; someone’s willingness and behaviour is the way one can be classified as if they are interested at all to do something or to go through a process. Volition is the word that again symbolizes if anyone is keen to do something, which they might have ignored due to some other reason. There are some reasons why someone would get motivated by him/herself. There is a word “intrinsic motivation”; it says someone can get motivated by himself or herself, this is a sort that someone can notice by observing someone’s special notifications, the notification might include.

What excites him/her or what is the mean by which he/she does some sort of personal enjoyment.

Personal interest; what exactly does attract him/her, the topic which arouses his/her curiosity.

Pleasure is an important as this helps understanding the motivational factor related to it; this can prove itself to be useful tool that helps understanding the pleasure factor for someone.

The work motivation can be achieved in two ways, self motivation and management efforts and stimulation. Motivating some particular employee in front of hundreds of employee can make others think of a better performance as to get that bonus next time and as we know a healthy competition can improve the inner situation of any organisation, and in schools; the same can be applied to students again, giving a particular student an upper grade will make certain students think about how that particular kid get to have those kind of grade, and students does have a mentality of sharing grades with one another, and if this does happen there a healthy competition will grow and with a positive attitude we can think of a better result next time (Wlodkowski, 1982).

Motivation has always been one factor that can be a useful one; as we know the meaning of motivation means to motivate, for fulfilling the desired needs at any particular point of time. In organisations like any other, be it a business organisation or any educational institution or any other, worker/students get motivated with the help of different type of tools; motivational tools might include things or certain behaviour that can make someone do something with a huge level enthusiasm. Motivational tools might include:

Bonus: companies give their workers bonus/perks/ advance salaries or anything that can make the employee as they will think as the company does think a lot about them and they are being considered.

Points: Students in schools and any other educational institutions get to have some sort of grades and other points as their advantage, which motivates them to work harder for the next time.

Giving monetary bonus or marks beyond expectation can make someone happy. Those are not just some money or some greater grade, they are marks; they are reason for someone being happy and that is the reason they are being given those number or monetary rewards (Satinoff & Teitelbaum, 1983).

One can get to study in this topic is, how someone can motivate their associates and other who are related to them. There are several kinds of communication, to be particular there is one that says, intrapersonal communication; this is sort of communication one dose by self and does not communicate with others; this is a quite personal thing. This intrapersonal communication can be of great use with an essence of motivation. “No one can help someone until the person himself gets to know him/herself”. This says, the way one might motivate them is the best; as a person would know the best and worst part of him/her and thus would motivate to do certain things.

ObjectiveThe primary objective of the overall research study is to determine the level of the significance of several motivation factors for the improved performance of the human being in their respective life. The study also helps to identify the overall impact of the motivational aspect on the performance of the individual.

HypothesisThe word motivation can be defined as Guay said 2010, the reasons underlying for the upcoming behaviour. The definitions made by different citers “as Gredler, Broussard and Garrison from the year of 2004” if mashed up, can be defined broadly as the reasons and attributes that can make us or people to do or do not to do certain things. Intrinsic motivation is the motivation that can be observed by noticing the personal interests, pleasure factors and other, which gives enjoyment to a particular person. As Deci and others observed and said as intrinsic motivation has an important role to play as in times of motivating certain people or a group of people. Intrinsic motivation can energize and retains its effect through certain level of fluctuations in the level of satisfaction. Studies say that people can adopt certain level of involvement which is huge and that in only because of that motivation intrinsic to be specific. If with go with past results and what did traditional educators say, the result would come in front as intrinsic motivation has always been the effective one and results in a better output than the extrinsic motivation. Motivation can result in only good way and the quality of output that might come out would be a better one than the last one (Evans, 1975).

Research AnalysisAccording to Stipek , (1996), the early study of motivation stated was basically based over the concept of extrinsic motivation and reinforcements. The following literature, all sort of behaviour, which even including achievement was believed to be governed by reinforcement contingencies. B.F skinner was a proponent and he himself identified different sort of reinforces or forces that might have a potential of manipulating the behaviour of a particular person towards some sort of activity. Contingent defines the chances to a particular concerned subject. Positive reinforces or some sort of rewards, might be an outcome or consequences that puts a positive behaviour they were made contingent over. On the other hand the negative sort of reinforces are the outcomes which are the results of removing some stimulus or some sort of incentives or perks or anything might influence the worker or the employee in a positive way. Punishment is a factor that will never effect in a better way and will always result with negative outcome, as this will always reduce the quality and thus the outcome as well.

As we already have come across examples like teachers praising their students and employers praising their employees is the best way to express what exactly is praising with good and bad grades, good grade for good work and bad grades for bad works.

Freud for example, father of the psychoanalytic school of psychology, wrote that humans are motivated to act because of perceived internal imbalances in the body as Weiner said in the year of 1980. In other words, when the body is out of balance-say, it needs food- then it will act to correct the imbalance-by finding food. Moreover, while Freud says that the mind can influence the body’s actions- i.e. even if I’m hungry, I would not kill someone and take his sloppy Joe-he would say that the impetus for action is rooted in the desires of the body making them known through the unconscious rather than through an individual’s conscious thoughts (Levy, 1981).

Other research during this early period tries to use mathematical models to account for factors affecting a person’s motivation. If they could accurately identify these factors, these researchers argued, and then they could use these models to predict people’s behaviours (James, 1950). Lewin, for instance, developed something called “field theory” which suggest that all influences surrounding a certain goal either exert a positive valence that makes us want to pursue or approach the goal or a negative valence that makes us want to avoid pursuing it. Assign each a mathematical value and do the math and pretty soon you’ll be able to predict whether the goal gets attempted or not.

Another related strand of research on going at the time was “behaviourism;” if you’ve heard of the experiments with the slobbering dogs, this is it. Working with motions of “habit” and “volition” developed by James in the nineteenth century, researcher like Thorndike and Pavlov looked at how motivation could be controlled through an externally imposed system of stimulus and response according to Atkinson in the year of 1964. This research, in turn gave rise to the “behaviourist” models of skinner; the man who touted the superiority of drills and repetition in education (Evans, 1975).

Research findingsAtkinson’s “Achievement theory” for example, suggests that humans direct themselves to act on the basis of a desire to either “achieve success” or to “avoid failure” as Weiner said in the year of 1980. According to Dornyei as he described in the year of 2001, it suggests that people are motivated to act in so far as they believed that the outcome they will receive as a result of their action is both attainable and important to them. Goal theory which like expectancy-value theory is interested in the future worth of behaviour, looks at the ways in which goals are set and their subsequent effect on achievement- “goal-setting theory”- and at whether people are motivated to pursue a goal for the sake of learning and self-improvement or because they want to prove themselves to somebody-“goal orientation theory” (Victoroff, 2006).

Other theorists of the period were also growing increasingly interested in social context and its role in influencing motivational choices. For example, Berry in the year of 1980 explores how in a shared social environment, a person’s membership in one cultural group influences his/her motivation to interact with and immerse him/herself in the culture of another. While Tajfel’s “social identity theory” suggests that people derive their identities from, and therefore are influenced by, their interactions with others and with the social environment around them.

The “theory of reasoned action” also explores this idea of social context. It looks at how a person balances his/her own attitude toward a particular behaviour against the social pressure he/she perceives to act or not to act. This theory is carried one step further in the “theory of planned behaviour” which asks how a person’s perceived sense of control in a situation will influence his/her action. Also of considerable importance is Deci and Ryan’s development of self-determination theory put forward in the mid-eighties. Within this framework, we are able to explore the role of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in shaping motivation. Today research continues in most of these areas.

Compared to motivational psychology, the field of motivation research in language learning is a relatively new phenomenon. According to Dornyei, whose name appears regularly in this research, it really began with the work of Gardner in the early sixties. Together with Lambert, Gardener suggests a framework for understanding language learning motivation in which learners is motivated to learn a target language in differing degrees depending of this framework persists today and has shaped much of the existing body of research. One particularly influential aspect of Gardener’s theory has been the dichotomy between “integrative” and “instrumental” orientations in motivation. And while this dichotomy will be explored more fully in a later section, in short form it means that people are motivated to learn a language either because they want to integrate into the target language community or because they want to use the target language as a tool-or an instrument- to achieve some other linguistic goal as Gardner said in the year of 1985.

ConclusionThe subject of work motivation is one of the most crucial and significant now a day which play an important role in the overall development of the human being. Each and every motivation has a theory part to evaluate some valid points to provide some useful guidance to a specific task. With the help of this task someone can be bale to know about the motivation satisfactory in any section. The application of motivation use to satisfy employees in verities of ways. Some of them want the external results from the nature to act the entire motivation work. This nature has come from the brain of human system. Such theories are creating a great understanding in between the motivation group and the pathological group. This result has found so much information on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation to motivate all other peoples with the help of increasing deep motivation. The main task can be seen to help the tasks within the risk analyzing invention (Teevan & Smith, 1967). Further having an explanation about the importance of a task by which it can able an explanation of motivation. Finally the task is to be done by which it can break the importance of any future task in the motivation section. So it is a good and positive step to achieve the goal of motivation from each and every client to remain the continuity of task. Overall the unit will help to meet the great understanding of motivation. Next this motivation will apply the needs of motivation into everyone’s life to achieve the targeted goal. It has also helped them to understand about the necessity of time and main improperness of situations. So the overview motivation shows the individual and interpersonal factors by which all simulate learners are able to know about an action. This chapter also describes about the creativeness of motivation and also examined them in this chapter including a suitable result. This chapter has also shown how to motivate the entire relationship in between the principle behaviour of modification and the motivation of learners (Tracy, 2013). Important cognitive aspects are motivated in this chapter to examine the importance the attribution of the entire motivation criteria. Finally this explanation will give so much success and failures to the students. Finally this chapter has examined the main impact of the teacher motivation and this motivation will distributed among the students. Students will also understand the needed motivation from the teachers and they will also modify the process and at last make a new implementation of motivation within their range of quires. But most of all they have to need to recognize the entire motivating process by which something can easily understood to learn the second process. This process must be identified with the help of human needs and powerful influence from the past experiences. The main guidelines are needed to be developed with the help of motivation environments to simulate all the learners to want the study. Motivation to enhance work performance is a broad extent a part of satisfaction itself. (Beaumont and Macomber, 1949)

ReferencesBeaumont, H., & Macomber, F. (1949). Psychological factors in education (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bindra, D., & Stewart, J. (1971). Motivation (1st ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Chambers, N. (2009). Binge eating (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Davies, D., & Armstrong, M. (1989). Psychological factors in competitive sport (1st ed.). London: Falmer Press.

Evans, P. (1975). Motivation (1st ed.). London: Methuen.

Gawron, V. (n.d.). Psychological factors (1st ed.).

Gilbert, D., Fiske, S., & Lindzey, G. (1998). The handbook of social psychology (1st ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Houston, J. (1985). Motivation (1st ed.). New York: Macmillan.

James, W., & James, W. (1892). Psychology (1st ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Co.

James, W. (1950). The principles of psychology (1st ed.). [New York]: Dover Publications.

Levy, N. (1981). Psychonephrology 1 (1st ed.). New York: Plenum Medical Book Co.

Myers, D. (2004). Psychology (1st ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Russell, I. (1971). Motivation (1st ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: W.C. Brown Co.

Satinoff, E., & Teitelbaum, P. (1983). Motivation (1st ed.). New York: Plenum Press.

Sher, L. (2009). Psychological factors and cardiovascular disorders (1st ed.). New York: Nova Biomedical Books.

Teevan, R., & Smith, B. (1967). Motivation (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Tracy, B. (2013). Motivation (1st ed.). New York: American Management Association.

Victoroff, J. (2006). Tangled roots (1st ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press.

Whiteley, P. (2002). Motivation (1st ed.). Oxford, U.K.: Capstone Pub.

Wlodkowski, R. (1982). Motivation (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.

Woodworth, R., & Marquis, D. (1947). Psychology (1st ed.). New York: H. Holt.

Monsters and Moral Imagination

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Monsters and Moral ImaginationOne cannot have a definite definition of monsters as many people depending on their culture and understanding have contradictory meanings of what they are. They can be referred to the mythical creatures with contemplative nature that are brought into reality through imagination, cultural and physiological cultural forces which made the traumatizing since the early eras. However, this is a bit different from the perception of the article “Monsters and Moral Imagination” by Stephen T. Asma a philosophy professor in Columbia College Chicago. The article was first published in 2009 in the Chronicle of Higher Education. The author argues that monsters are there for a purpose and they create fears that people experience without the capability of controlling the nature and world. In this paper, the genre talked about in the article is a narrative folktale, the audience being spoken to by the audience is the general public, and it played a significant role of explaining the meaning of monsters in the modern days and how they are experienced in reality.

Asma’s narrative in the article fits well in the folktale genre as it throughout involves monsters and the moral imaginations regarding their experiences. The folktale is a type of narrative which deals in particular with the culture and believes of the community regarding the existence of nature which is commonly narrated orally. In the essay, the author tries to explain the reality and prove that monsters are not just the imaginary extraordinary creatures bought through films fictions and traditional stories. Stephen T. Asma argues and brings to mind the instance of monsters existing today in consideration of the wild deeds that are done by the people around the globe. Monsters are the ones associated with enormous killing and destroying the peoples’ properties. For instance, considering the typical example of monsters which include Vampires, Zombies and Frankenstein were related to weird enthrallment, and no one in the society would like to be associated with them.

The Vampires were classified as the undead group whose primary purpose was sucking blood and could use any means including affection as well as gifts among others to lure their favorite targets. On the other hand, Frankenstein monster was a supernatural creature created by mixing chemical and old parts of the deceased, and it had humanity even though people did not want to be associated with it at all. Considering the writer’s arguments there are many disturbing and traumatizing actions are done by the people in the name of avenging and gaining popularity among others which cause suffering are not different from the acts done by monsters. All the mentioned above regards peoples ways of thinking that is commonly based on the cultural beliefs making the article fall under folktale narrative.

The audience of the author’s speech is the general public. Throughout the narration, Asma does not base his argument on a particular group of the audience but advice the community in general. He elaborates well that the Frank stein’s monster story signifies the society’s intolerance and the perception that monsters are ridiculous thus failing to realize and positively utilize the monster’s kindness and humanity. The community also fails to think out of the bonds to relate the things viewed on the films and other monsters fictions with the happenings in today’s life. Many evils have been witnessed since the patriots Act and the market center terrorism. Many argue that is monsters are passed by time and were only beliefs and superstition. However, the author provokes many expanding the thinking capacity and changing the perspective on what are monsters. He states that monsters perceptions are encapsulations of the peoples’ feeling of defenselessness and it has spread like a lethal infection. It is not a must that monster is supernatural beings that are masculine and enormous in complexion, but they can also be ordinary individuals that are inhumane and do not value others life.

For instance, basing on Asma’s argument one can put into consideration the story of Shapiro and that of the Abdul Habib, Afghan headmaster, and teacher as essential examples. Shapiro and his friends were attacked by Daniel Silva who was well armed with a coffee. The armed man resulted in the commotion and most painful death of about seven people Shapiro being among them. Shapiro was in his activity to save others but coincidentally the armed man caught up with him and what followed was his extermination. Silva stated that he had done the assassination in the name of avenging her mother who was dead. On the other hand, the story of Habib begun when for armed men junked in his homestead and captured him. The tutor’s family gathered in a strategic place where they could all witness the killing of their father. These stories regard the whole community as all of them are victims of these digital monsters who tend to use advanced weapons to cause a massacre.

The primary purpose of the article is to invoke people’s thoughts and to challenge them on the moral lessons learned from the stories related to monsters. Asma suggests that a good monsters story is significant to a human being as it transmits moral truths to them by proving through examples depravity and dignity but not persuading. Life involves conquering the vulnerability and moving out of the fear to prevent being its captivity. Regarding Shapiro’s immense fear can be subjected to the community but the author uses it as an example of showing that monsters are not an only original thing. Human makes the world a terrific place to be as they use the education and intelligent acquire to cause suffering and accomplishing self-benefit deals. A good example is the case of Habib, he was a productive community member, but the Muslim religious extremists assassinated him because of teaching and being the head of a school that incorporated Muslim girls. It is ironical that the monsters are degrading the dignity of the community back drawing it to the old eras where female education was not put into consideration instead of adopting a digital way of living.

Asma does a recommendable work of convincing his audience to use logic, ethics, and emotion. It is through the mentioned principles that guide the path followed by the society regarding moral behaviors. Emotion, logic, and ethics work well together as logical thinking with determining one’s emotion while both of them facilitates ethical thinking. The article challenges people to improve in ethical issues and plays a relevant role in explaining the definition of monsters. The vulnerability is a common threat to the society that must be eradicated to enhance its development.

From the discussion above, Asma has well based his audience with the emerging and trending issues in the society. F5or instance, people only focus on the entertainment bit and still live in cultural beliefs that monsters do not exist. The author has given a precise illustration of today’s monsters and has in one or another way impacted the general public positively on the measure to be taken regarding moral imagination. The article is significant to the development of the society, and it is also convenient to the future generations.

Montgomery Bus Boycott and Southern Christian Leadership Conference

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Role of Woman’s Political Council in Montgomery Bus Boycott

Woman’s Political Council is one of the leading organizations that fight for racial discrimination to end. They are a fully supportive group for the deletion of racial boundaries in society. The organization was founded in Alabama in 1946. The organization was formed to address the racial issues in the city (Levy, 2015). Since then, it has always helped the black people and those of other races not considered superior who is not valued to get a place in society. When they get their rightful position, they can be proud and happy about their race to find their proper place in the community and stop being afraid of their race. The organization was the first to call people and predominantly black Americans to protest against racial segregation in Alabama’s bus transit system. This protest was carried out for eleven months, and the woman’s political council was the one spearheading this boycott (Burns, 2012).

The campaign began on December 5th, 1955, after a black woman refused to give her seat to a white person. The council was involved in this campaign in so many different ways, and some of these ways were; providing transport to those who wanted to protest against this social menace that was happening at that particular time. They also created awareness that racial discrimination was terrible and there had to be justice and equality among all people without having racial barriers. The boycott lasted for 13 months. It led the United States supreme court to declare that the treatment of black people with lesser respect and dignity than the white people in public transport was unconstitutional and had to stop (Brooks, 2008). Therefore, Alabama had to bring the laws put into place down and make sure that black people were given the same respect as white people. Consequently, it can be concluded that the relationship between these two is very close and one which made history in the fight for human rights, especially those embedded within racial confines.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

Southern Christian Leadership Conference is very well known because its first president was Martin Luther King junior. This conference is closed related to the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Rustin first conceived the group to find the rightful place in society by trying peaceful boycotts and demonstrations to gain a political, social, and economic balance between the whites and the blacks. Therefore, Rustin got his idea and the desire to make a change from the Montgomery Bus Boycott. He worked closely with king, Ella baker, Fred Shuttles worth, Ralph Abernathy, and Joseph Lowery, who held key positions in the first group. Through these individuals’ efforts, the king called for the first meeting, which comprised around 60 black ministers. The meeting began on January 10th, 1957, and ended with a press conference on the 11th of the same month and year. The first name given to the group was the Southern Negro Leaders Conference on Transportation and Nonviolent Integration (Fairclough, 2001).

The goals southern Christian leadership conference was to fight for the rights of the black population generally. The purpose of fighting for the black population’s requests was to be achieved through the conference’s efforts. These included ending segregation, gaining equal protection and opportunity for the blacks before the law, acquiring voting rights for blacks, promoting non-violence in the demonstrations and boycotts to achieve social equality and justice between the whites and the blacks. This group’s strategies were very well declared, and their primary way of doing things was peace. Therefore, every time they organized anything, they had to strategize and make sure that peace was availed at all costs and make sure that the upkeep of the law was possible and keenly followed by their members (King, 1986).

References

Brooks, P. E. (2008). Boycotts, buses, and passes: Black women’s resistance in the US South and South Africa. University of Massachusetts Press.

Burns, S. (Ed.). (2012). Daybreak of freedom: the Montgomery bus boycott. Univ of North Carolina Press.

Fairclough, A. (2001). To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr. University of Georgia Press.

King Jr, M. L. (1986). the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr, 4, 358-360.

Levy, P. B. (Ed.). (2015). The Civil Rights Movement in America: From Black Nationalism to the Women’s Political Council: From Black Nationalism to the Women’s Political Council. ABC-CLIO.

Monte Verde

After long, often bitter debate, archeologists have finally come to a consensus that humans reached southern Chile 12,500 years ago. The date is more than 1,000 years before the previous benchmark for human habitation in the Americas, 11,200-year-old stone spear points first discovered in the 1930s near Clovis, N.M.

The Chilean site, known as Monte Verde, is on the sandy banks of a creek in wooded hills near the Pacific Ocean. Even former skeptics have joined in agreeing that its antiquity is now firmly established and that the bone and stone tools and other materials found there definitely mark the presence of a hunting-and-gathering people.

The new consensus regarding Monte Verde, described in interviews last week and formally announced Monday, thus represents the first major shift in more than 60 years in the confirmed chronology of human prehistory in what would much later be called, from the European perspective, the New World.

For American archeologists it is a liberating experience not unlike aviation’s breaking of the sound barrier; they have broken the Clovis barrier. Even moving back the date by as little as 1,300 years, archeologists said, would have profound implications on theories about when people first reached America, presumably from northeastern Asia by way of the Bering Strait, and how they migrated south more than 10,000 miles to occupy the length and breadth of two continents. It could mean that early people, ancestors of the Indians, first arrived in their new world at least 20,000 years before Columbus.

Evidence for the pre-Clovis settlement at Monte Verde was amassed and carefully analyzed over the last two decades by a team of American and Chilean archeologists, led by Dr. Tom D. Dillehay of the University of Kentucky in Lexington. Remaining doubts were erased by Dillehay’s comprehensive research report, which has been circulated among experts and is to be published next month by the Smithsonian Institution. And last month, a group of archeologists, including some of Monte Verde’s staunchest critics, inspected the artifacts and visited the site, coming away thoroughly convinced.

In his report of the site visit, Dr. Alex W. Barker, chief curator of the Dallas Museum of Natural History, said: “While there were very strongly voiced disagreements about different points, it rapidly became clear that everyone was in fundamental agreement about the most important question of all. Monte Verde is real. It’s old. And it’s a whole new ball game.”

The archeologists made the site inspection under the auspices of the Dallas museum, where their conclusions were reported Monday, and with additional support by the National Geographic Society. The archeologists, all specialists in the early settlement of America, included Dr. C. Vance Haynes of the University of Arizona, Dr. James Adovasio of Mercyhurst College in Erie, Pa., Dr. David J. Meltzer of Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Dr. Dena Dincauze of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Dr. Donald K. Grayson of the University of Washington in Seattle and Dr. Dennis Stanford of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.

Dincauze, who had expressed serious doubts about the site’s antiquity, said that Dillehay’s report made “a convincing case” that the remains of huts, fireplaces and tools showed human occupation by a pre-Clovis culture.

“I’m convinced it’s 100 percent solid,” Dr. Brian M. Fagan, an anthropologist at the University of California at Santa Barbara, said of the new assessment of Monte Verde. “It’s an extraordinary piece of research.”

Finally vindicated, Dillehay said, “Most archeologists had always thought there was a pre-Clovis culture out there somewhere, and I knew that if they would only come to the site and look at the setting and see the artifacts, they would agree that Monte Verde was pre-Clovis.”

Monte Verde, on the banks of Chinchihaupi Creek, is in the hills near the town of Puerto Montt, 500 miles south of Santiago. Dillehay and Dr. Mario Pino of the Southern University of Chile in Valdivia began excavations there in 1976. They found the remains of the ancient camp, even wood and other perishables that archeologists rarely find, remarkably well preserved by the water-saturated peat bog that covered the site, isolating the material from oxygen and thus decay.

As Dillehay reconstructed the prehistoric scene in his mind, a group of 20 to 30 people occupied Monte Verde for a year or so. They lived in shelters covered in animal hides. They gathered berries in the spring, chestnuts in the fall and also ate potatoes, mushrooms and marsh grasses. They hunted small game and also ancestors of the llama and sometimes went down to the Pacific, 30 miles away, for shellfish. They were hunters and gatherers living far from the presumed home of their remote ancestors, in northeastern Asia.

The evidence to support this picture is extensive. Excavations turned up wooden planks from some of the 12 huts that once stood in the camp, and logs with attached pieces of hide that probably insulated these shelters. Pieces of wooden poles and stakes were still tied with cords made of local grasses, a telling sign that ingenious humans had been there. “That’s something nature doesn’t do,” Barker said. “Tie overhand knots.”

Stone projectile points found there were carefully chipped on both sides, archeologists said. The people of Monte Verde also made digging sticks, grinding slabs and tools of bone and tusk. Some seeds and nuts were shifted out of the soil. A chunk of meat had managed to survive in the bog, remains of the hunters’ last kill; DNA analysis indicates the meat was from a mastodon. The site also yielded several human coprolites, ancient fecal material.

Nothing at Monte Verde was more evocative of its former inhabitants than a single footprint beside a hearth. A child had stood there by the fire 12,500 years ago and left a lasting impression in the soft clay.

Radiocarbon dating of bone and charcoal from the fireplaces established the time of the encampment. The date of 12,500 years ago, said Meltzer, author of “Search for the First Americans,” published in 1993 by the Smithsonian Institution, “could fundamentally change the way we understand the peopling of the Americas.”

The research, in particular, shows people living as far south as Chile before it is clear that there existed an ice-free corridor through the vast North American glaciers by which people might have migrated south. In the depths of the most recent ice age, two vast ice sheets converged about 20,000 years ago over what is now Canada and the northern United States and apparently closed off human traffic there until sometime after 13,000 years ago. Either people migrated through a corridor between the ice sheets and spread remarkably fast to the southern end of America or they came by a different route, perhaps along the western coast, by foot and sometimes on small vessels. Otherwise they must have entered the Americas before 20,000 years ago.

Dr. Carol Mandryk, a Harvard University archeologist who has studied the American paleoenvironment, said the concept of an ice-free corridor as the migration route emerged in the 1930s, but her research shows that even after the ice sheets began to open a path, there was not enough vegetation there to support the large animals migrating people would have had to depend on for food.

“It’s very clear people couldn’t have used this corridor until after 13,000 years ago,” Mandryk said. “They came down the coast. I don’t understand why people see the coast as an odd way. The early people didn’t have to be interior big-game hunters, they could have been maritime adapted people.” No archeologists seriously considers the possibility that the first Americans came by sea and landed first in South America, a hypothesis made popular in the 1960s by the Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl. There is no evidence of people’s occupying Polynesia that long ago. All linguistic, genetic and geological evidence points to the Bering Strait as the point of entry, especially in the ice age, when lower sea levels created a wide land bridge there between Siberia and Alaska.

Although several other potential pre-Clovis sites have been reported, none has yet to satisfy all archeologists in the way Monte Verde has just done. But archeologists expected the verification of Monte Verde would hasten the search for even older places of early human occupation in the Americas.

Bibliography:

Monthesim, one of the best known theistic systems

MonthesimSo many similarities flow through man’s interpretation of the unknown and the spiritual and it seems that all cultures and times have had the need to have something in their lives other then the material world that we can see, smell, taste and touch. Many today follow the belief in the One God. This seems to be driven by the notion that a supreme god is needed for religion which is driven by the hope for some form of salvation. The God of religion is the unspeakably great Lord on whom man depends, in whom he recognizes the source of his happiness and perfection; He is the righteous Judge, rewarding good and punishing evil; the loving and merciful Father, whose ear is ever open to the prayers of his needy and penitent children. Such a conception of God can be readily grasped by simple, non philosophic minds, by children, by the uneducated peasant, by the converted savage. Even with all their religious crudities and superstitions, such low-grade savages as the Pygmies of the Northern Congo, the Australians, and the natives of the Andaman Islands entertain very noble conceptions of the Supreme Deity. Primitive man was capable of monotheistic belief, even without the aid of Divine revelation, contrary to some religious beliefs. Among the more educated there was support for the belief that many deities were in existence at some level lower than the one supreme deity. Some were even capable of worshiping one god while recognizing the existence of other deities.

Along with polytheism, monothiesm is one of the best known theistic systems. Monotheism is founded upon the idea that there is only one God, typically regarded as the creator of all reality. This god is believed to be totally self-sufficient and without any dependency upon any other being. Other alleged gods might be claimed to be merely aspects of the supreme god – this argument is more commonly found when the transition to monotheism is recent and the older gods need to be explained away. More often, other alleged gods are simply denied any reality at all, or perhaps claimed to be demons tempting people away from the True Faith. This exclusivity has resulted in less religious tolerance and freedom in traditionally monotheistic cultures. The origin of monotheism is unclear.

The first recorded monotheistic system arose in Egypt during the rule of Akhenaton, but it did not long survive his death. Some suggest that Moses, if he existed, brought monotheism to the ancient Hebrews, but it is possible that he was still henotheistic or monolatrous. The earliest Egyptian civilization believed in a single supreme god, who had no name but was described as the source of light the creator of all. He brought fourth rules or natural laws and in their diagrammatic literature these were personified in what we see as the gods and goddesses. Briefly around 1350 BC flourished the worship at Armana in Egypt of Aten/Aton as the one and only manifestation of god, in the near east Zoroaster saw the revelation of one supreme being in the eternal flame around 600 BC and some hundred year later in the Middle East appeared the historical writings from the descendants of Abraham, and out of whose customs grew Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The form of monotheism which is traditionally most common in the West and which is too often confused with theism in general is the belief in a personal god which emphasizes that this god is a conscious mind that is immanent in nature, humanity and the values which it has created. This god is both independent of and distinct from the created universe and also presently active in the created universe. Because this form of monotheism dominates so strongly in the West, it is not uncommon to find people who simply give it the label “theism,” ignoring all the other forms as being types of theism.

When Abraham was held back from sacrificing Isaac by God around 2000 BC, his God which became the God of the Israelites was seen as but one of many. From the days of Abraham to the days of Moses and beyond, a lot of local gods still existed. When we talk about Akhenaton having but one god, to many He too was but one of many. Even Allah was originally one of many a local god. The God of Abraham and Israel was their God, their chief god, who proved himself over and over to be greater than the gods of other lands and peoples. Even the first of the Ten commandments recognizes ‘other gods’. However the other gods were but the local interpretation of god under a local name.

But what is this “god” thing that is the object of theism? A god is being, usually thought of as a person or having personal qualities, who plays a role in mythology and religion. This object of belief typically possesses supernatural or extraordinary powers far in excess of those that can be attributed to normal, mortal humans. The development of the idea of a “god” can be clearly observed in the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent. Originally, the Indian “gods” were exemplary , strong, and victorious rulers who managed to accomplish a great deal more than their contemporaries. Later they were elevated to godhood and worshiped as supernatural deities. Similar processes can be seen even in the later periods of the Roman Empire, when emperors were declared gods after their death as a matter of routine (although it was not routine that coherent religions were maintained around them for very long). Indeed, the elevation of powerful warriors or kings to the status of godhood may have been one of the earliest ways belief in gods was developed. Another aspect in the development of theism would have been the observation of powerful forces of nature. They all appear to be beyond the influence of humans, but they would also have appeared to be animate, just like humans and animals. Thus would have developed the belief that unseen, powerful spirits are behind the events in life: animism. Parallel with the belief in unseen spirits is the desire to influence those spirits – much the way powerful humans are influenced. Early religion therefore developed means by which humans make offerings to the spirits the same as offerings were made to tribal leaders. They followed whatever rules and orders the spirits might be thought to issue the same as orders from tribal leaders were followed From this sprung the tendency towards organized religion. Monotheism was a gradual process and it was not until around 500 BC that the idea that the God of Israel was the one and only God and always was. Christianity, at first a Jewish sect, confused the issue by developing the idea of a Trinity which took 400 years to define, and even then as a mystery. This Trinity seems to have roots in the three names of the Egyptian God and their fondness for triads. Allah was but the chief amongst a group of Arab gods until they recognized that he was the same God as the God of the Israelites and of the Christians. Just as the Jews had eventually got rid of all other gods so did the Moslems. Perhaps it was a lack of understanding as still exists. One region’s understanding may not be different to another’s but they all struggled to understand the indefinable unknown and eternal with greater or lesser success. As philosophy is always subject to the frailties of man it can often go astray. Some claim divine revelation but it just may be that it is logical. The truth of creation or the law of nature must eventually reveal itself simply because it is the truth. The great question posed by Pontius Pilot ‘What is truth’ is one of the eternal quandaries and at the beginning of all in our earliest civilization lies the guidance of truth from which all else flows.

Bibliography:

Bibliography

1.Sheed, Frank .J. Theology and Sanity ,Oxford/New York; Oxford University Press. 2000

2.Miller. Charles .d. The origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic background and the Ugaritic texts, Oxford/New York. Oxford University Press. 2001

Motivation For Learning Foreign Language And How To Keep Students Motivated

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628860” Types of Motivation PAGEREF _Toc377628860 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628861” Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model PAGEREF _Toc377628861 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628862” Cultural and Social Milieu PAGEREF _Toc377628862 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628863” Individual Differences and the Context/Setting in Which the Learning Occurs PAGEREF _Toc377628863 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628864” Linguistic and Non-linguistic Outcomes PAGEREF _Toc377628864 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628865” Ways of Motivating PAGEREF _Toc377628865 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc377628866” References PAGEREF _Toc377628866 h 8

Motivation for Learning Foreign Language

Winke (2005) defines motivation as being encouraged to do something. Language is described as the medium through which thoughts are expressed. It is a social thing through which individuals offer their experiences to others and obtain their experience in return (Nakata, 2006). Motivation to learn a foreign language is described as the learner’s orientation with the purpose of learning a second language (Norris-Holt, 2001). Motivation to learn a foreign can also be defined as “complex of constructs, involving both effort and desire, as well as a favorable attitude toward learning the language at hand” (Winke, 2005, p3). In other words, the learner is encouraged to learn a foreign language because of the underlying factors such as integration into the society using the language. Motivation in learning a foreign language happens when the learners find importance in learning the language of the society they live in. The learners use the language to exchange opinions, and express their thoughts with each other and thus, increasing their urge to learn the language autonomously and continuously.

Types of MotivationMotivation can be categorized into integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is defined as the learner’s orientation towards learning second language (L2). Successful students in learning a foreign language tend to be those who admire people that speak the target language, like their culture and have the urge of integrating or becoming familiar with the society using the language. When an individual becomes a resident of a certain community that makes use of the target language in its daily interactions, integrative motivation becomes the key element in developing the level of language proficiency. It becomes mandatory for the individual to function socially within the community and becoming one of its members (Norris-Holt, 2001).

On the other hand, instrumental motivation is characterized by the need to gain something concrete or practical from the learning of a second language. The goal of acquiring second language in instrumental motivation is utilitarian, for instance, meeting the necessities for university or school graduation, application for a job, reading technical material, attaining higher social status, translation work, or request for high pay based on the language ability. Instrumental motivation is common in instances where the acquisition of a second language is not important for the learner’s social integration into the society (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Both instrumental and integrative motivations are important elements for success but it has been found that integrative motivation sustains long-term success in the learning of a second language. Research shows that integrative motivation is important in the formal learning setting or environment. It is important to note that both instrumental and integrative motivations are not necessarily mutually limited. Learners rarely choose one type of motivation when studying a second language. Instead, the learners combine both orientations. For instance, international students living in the United States learn English for academic reasons and at the same time, they desire to become incorporated with the culture and the people of the country. Motivation is an essential factor in second language achievement. Thus, it is crucial to determine the combination and form of motivation that helps in the effective acquisition of a foreign language (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Gardner’s Socio-Educational ModelThe model identifies factors that are interrelated in learning a second language. It is important to note that motivation to learn a second language is one variable and when combined with other factors, it influences the learner’s success. The work of Gardner focuses on foreign language acquisition in a language classroom. The model tries to interconnect four characteristics of second language acquisition and they include individual learner differences, cultural and social milieu, linguistic outcomes, and the context/setting in which the learning takes place (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Cultural and Social MilieuThe cultural or social milieu refers to the environment or the surroundings in which the individual is located, thus, they determine the individual’s beliefs about the other language and culture. The beliefs make considerable effect on the acquisition of second language. For instance, in the monocultural setting such as that of Britain, many people believe that it is not important to study another language and the minority groups are supposed to incorporate and become proficient in the country’s dominant language (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Individual Differences and the Context/Setting in Which the Learning Occurs

The four individual differences are also believed to have a considerable impact in the acquisition of a second language. They include variables such as language aptitude, situational anxiety, motivation, and intelligence. These variables are closely interconnected with conext/setting in which the learning occurs. In this regard, two settings or contexts are identified and they include the unstructured acquisition of a language in a natural setting and the formal instruction in the classroom. The effects of individual difference variables vary with the context or setting. For instance, aptitude and intelligence play a significant role in learning in a formal setting and at the same it exerts a weaker influence in the informal setting. Both settings are influenced equally by the motivation and situational variables (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Linguistic and Non-linguistic OutcomesThe last factor is the non-linguistic and linguistic results of the learning occurrence. Linguistic outcome is defined as the actual language skills and language knowledge. In entails test indicators such as the general proficiency tests and course grades. Non-linguistic results express the individual’s approach towards cultural beliefs and values, particularly towards the targeted language society. It is worth noting that those motivated to incorporate both non-linguistic and linguistic “outcomes of the learning experience will attain a higher degree of L2 proficiency and more desirable attitudes” (Norris-Holt, 2001).

From the Gardner’s Socio-Educational model, motivation is thought to have three elements. These three elements include affect, desire, and effort. Effort expresses the time spent or used in learning the language and the learner’s drive. Desire refers to level to which the learner wishes to become proficient or skillful in the language. Affect expresses the learner’s reaction towards learning the language (the reaction in this case is emotional) (Norris-Holt, 2001).

Ways of Motivating

From the research findings on the nature of motivation and the impact that it makes on the students’ learning perceptions, it is clear that there are clear aspects of motivation that define the ways from which it must be approached. Without a consideration of the specifics of motivation in defining a successful approach to assist foreign language student, it may not be possible to create the change of learning outcomes as expected in content based instruction approach. It is therefore important that the correct strategy to effect motivation in a foreign language classroom is adopted to attain the success desired of such an approach (Root, 1999). One of the main aspects of motivation is the definition of the goal, which must be clearly enumerated in the foreign language classroom. Changing the students’ mindset to embrace a totally different language from their mother tongue must define the goal of such studies and generate the desired trajectories. Secondly, specific effort must be cultivated in form of behavior contributions in order to achieve the identified goal. Thirdly, there must be a deliberate desire to achieve the outlined goal for studying the foreign language among all the students, which acts as an important determinant of attitude change. Finally, motivation must cultivate a positive attitude in order to spur the urge to keep studying the foreign language (Gardner, 1985). Apparently, the clarification of the aspects of motivation in a foreign language classroom will facilitate developing the best approach to keep students at pace with the focus needed to sustain attachment and concentration in the classroom.

The most applicable motivation interventions in a foreign language classroom have been developed using the underlying concept of spurring and sustaining aspects of motivation. They mainly target the behavioral framework of approach in influencing students to stay focused in learning the foreign language. According to Crookes and Schmidt (1991), motivation can be imparted as a skill in the learning process where students are guided to stick to internal and external attitude. The authors reckon that the most important aspect of motivation is captured not only by taking care of intrinsic factors alone but extrinsic factors that determine the attitudes and perceptions held by the foreign language learners. Internal factors are handled by capturing interest in the foreign language, creating meaning and relevance, establishment of success trajectories from the learning and outcomes. From these insights, it is possible for the instructor to develop the desirable influence on the student that is manifested in not only willful enrolment but persistence and proactive attitude (Root, 1999).

General practical applications and approaches of motivation in a foreign language classroom have been designed through research. These approaches as observed in MacIntyre, Moore and Noels (2010) are designed to ensure undivided attention in a foreign language or any other classroom. Alexenoamen (2009) provides a number of practical interventions that can be implemented in various learning assignments that attempt to maintain interest and commitment among the students. One of the interventions is grouped work or paired work in class where students are encouraged through the interest of their peers inside the classroom. This approach is based on the premise that students have different learning capabilities and that the challenge established when they are grouped together in the learning environment acts as a motivation to stay focused in the classroom. Additionally, the author reckons that the sitting arrangement inside the classroom is important in the establishment of appropriate learning outcomes. Language lessons are dependent on the environment that the learner is exposed to, which implies that the sitting arrangement is important in the creation of learning coherence. Sitting patterns that motivate interest and focus may involve elimination of obstructions and minimizing movements inside the classroom while the lesson is in progress.

Alexenoamen (2009) also reckons that the correction of errors made by students is very important in languages than in many other subjects. It is therefore important that students are kept at pace with the learning outcomes at the most appropriate instance in order to develop interest and commitment from avoidance of discouragement occasioned by such mistakes. In addition, the author also reckons that the design of the lesson by the teacher must employ interesting interjections into the lesson to maintain top level focus from the students. Keeping the lesson as lively as possible through such interventions as role plays is important for student’s learning process. Interest can also be developed by the instructor through a variety of interventions that include visual aides in the delivery of content, which facilitate the breaking of monotony and boredom. In a similar effect, the application of audio tools in the delivery of the class work is important in the learning outcomes.

In an attempt to make sure that the delivery of the material is in coherence with the expectations of a motivated classroom, Root (1999) reckons that the main areas of the motivation concept must be summarized in as brief concept as possible. Firstly, the instruction delivery must be taken care of which involves the realignment of the instructor’s approach and attitudes with the concepts outlined above. As an illustration, notes giving and introduction of visual aides alongside application of dialogue among other interest generating interventions are entirely dependent on the instructor. Content delivered must be organized from simpler to complex language levels to avoid loss of interest and keep students at pace with their own level of understanding. Assignments given must also comply with the focus spurring concept of foreign language delivery. Student assessment in the same level of importance is expected to initiate motivation in the classroom, which implies that from the design of the examination to delivery of results must be captured in the motivational concept.

In conclusion, ways of motivating students must be prompted by the need to develop a balance on the various perspectives that highlight the main motivation concepts outlined in foreign language studies. It is important that the learner-instructor relationship is based established on the understanding of the most important factors of motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors that determine motivation must be understood to develop the appropriate environment in which the students can be assisted to exploit their potential in learning outcomes. To that end, teacher specific and student specific approaches must be brought out in a balanced measure in order to ensure that the student remains motivated throughout the learning process (Root, 2009).

ReferencesAlexeamen (2009) “Ways of Motivating EFL/ESL Students in the Classroom” Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/alexenoamen/ways-motivating-efl-esl-students-classroom” http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/alexenoamen/ways-motivating-efl-esl-students-classroom

Gardner, R. C. (1985) Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, UK: Edward Arnold

Gonzales, R. (2010) “Motivation Orientation in Foreign Language Learning: The Case of Filipino Foreign Language Learners,” TESOL Journal, 3:3-28

MacIntyre, P., Moore, B. & Noels, K. (2010) “Perspectives on Motivation in Second Language Acquisition: Lessons from the Ryoanji Garden” Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.lingref.com/cpp/slrf/2008/paper2381.pdf” http://www.lingref.com/cpp/slrf/2008/paper2381.pdf

Nakata, Y. (2006). Motivation and experience in foreign language learning. New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Norris-Holt, J. (2001). Motivation as a contributing factor in second language acquisition. The Internet TESL Journal, 7(6). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Norris-Motivation.html

Root, E. (1999) “Motivation and Learning Strategies in a Foreign Language Setting: A Look at a Learner of Korean,” Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.carla.umn.edu/resources/working-papers/documents/WP14_Learner_of_Korean.pdf” http://www.carla.umn.edu/resources/working-papers/documents/WP14_Learner_of_Korean.pdf

Winke, P. M. (2005). Promoting motivation in the foreign language classroom. Center for Language Education and Research, 9(2), 1-12.

Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels (3)

Name

Professor

Course

Date

Situational Approach

Case 5.1: Marathon Runners at Different Levels

Part 1

The runners are new to this activity and have accumulated no experience at all. Because they are all novices to running, they are classified as (D1) under the development levels. Their excitement about the race and their effort to show up each day is an indication of high commitment. So under the development levels, they are D1, low competence, and high commitment. This group asks basic questions constantly and is worried about their abilities in the race. For this reason, David should adopt the qualities of a coach represented by (S3) leadership styles. The group needs direction on the technicalities of a marathon. David does not expect, however, to deal with these kinds of questions and is not prepared. He is rather prepared to use Directing (S2), in his mind, his work is to direct and not to encourage this group coming to him with childish insecurities.

Part 2

It is clear from their choice of words and their concerns that runners in group two are considerably experienced and know a thing or two about running, they possibly lie under the (D3) developmental level (Northouse). With this group, David is at his element being highly supportive and because of their experience, he does not need to apply a hands-on approach or exercise high direction.

Part 3

This group’s experience and the ability of several of them to finish in the top ten put them at the D4 developmental category. It might not be David’s fault that he appears ineffective as a coach for this team. Their ego and an idea in their minds that they need a certain level of practice and tactics mean they do not appreciate David. They feel bigger than the New York marathon and look to focus on marathons beyond this one.

Part 4

David’s experience as a marathon runner himself is important for his coaching; his idea of the sport makes him suitable to speak to other people as a coach. The way he deals with group 1 may suggest a little bias, which is not a strong point for a leader. He needs to exercise patience if he is to succeed in this position. He also needs to exert a little more authority and demand respect from Group 3 runners.

Case 5.3: Getting the Message Across

Part 1

The current problem may be that training and leadership may be absent. It is good that Ms. Calder is interacting with students and relating with them, however, not having standards to run the station is major problem. She should focus some of her time training the students and holding them accountable than being friendly.

Part 2

Ann’s hands off approach means she is mainly doing things the S4 quadrant way and has no idea why the students are not following the rules. It is important for her apply the S1 or apply more of the S2 approach where she exerts more direction and becomes more involved. The nature of students and their ages mean their excitement for working for WCBA and learning the radio does not teach them right from wrong. They should be coached with an experienced individual and moderate during shifts.

Part 3

Ann can spend several shifts with the students and coach them on an individual basis. This will help her know how directive she needs to be with each of them. She will also be more informed on their level of skill. This is because situational leadership is based on the evaluation of employees’ skills and decides the level of need to amend in accordance.

Works Cited

Northouse, Peter G. Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications, 2018.

Action Plan to Address Drunk Driving

Name

Instructor

Course

Date

Drunk driving among college age group between the ages of 18 and 25 is one of the most common social problems that are related to the use of alcohol. Drunk driving does not endanger the life of the drunk driver and passengers, but also other people who are on the road (Parks, 2010). Many lives being lost and continue to be lost as a result of driving under the influence of alcohol. There is the need to come up with measures to prevent individuals under the college age from driving under the influence of alcohol. The environmental strategies used in the action plan are not assured to changing the behavior of every college student, but they can certainly help in changing the aspects of college and community culture that supports drunk driving among individuals in the college age group.

Action plan

The safety of college students and those around them is of great importance. There is the need to ensure that the alcohol prevention program put in place is working. The alcohol prevention program should take the form of a serious action plan that needs to be implemented by educational, legislative and community support. The action plan comprises of the following action points;

Action point 1: An increase in the enforcement of laws that dictate the minimum drinking age

The minimum legal age that one needs to attain in order to start drinking according to the law is a well studied alcohol control policy. As compared to other programs that are generally aimed at the youth who are in the college age bracket, increasing the legal age required for buying and consuming alcohol is considered to be the most successful (DeJong, 2005). If the law can implement a higher legal drinking age then there will be a decrease in consumption of alcohol. This is because of the decrease in the amount of alcohol being sold to minors. There should also be efforts made to reduce false age identification in order to make this law more effective. This will in turn lead to a decrease in the number of fatal road accidents caused by drunk driving. This should be carried out as a joint effort between college lecturers and the community.

Action point 2: Increased publicity, implementation and enforcing laws aimed at reducing alcohol-impaired driving

The number of deaths due to drunk driving can be reduced through setting the legal content of alcohol in the blood for college age group to 0.2 % or even lower. This can also be implemented trough using sobriety checkpoints around colleges and campuses (DeJong, 2005). Administrative license revocation laws should also be implemented incase a college student is found exceeding the legal blood content. This will make these college students careful and avoid going beyond the stipulated legal content of alcohol in their blood when driving. They would not want to risk their licenses being revoked. College students should be educated against the dangers associated with drunk driving.

Action plan 3: screening and counselling college students

All the college students who visit health centers in campus should undergo screening for alcohol abuse. College students abusing alcohol and those at risk of alcohol abuse should be given personal counselling. The counselling should entail how alcohol can easily sabotage their academics and lead to death in road accidents (Miller, 2008). They should also be counselled on how they can handle social situations where they can access alcohol freely.

Action plan 4: Restricting the density of alcohol retail outlets around college compounds

There should be a reduction in number of alcohol outlets around colleges or recreational areas where college students like to spend their time (DeJong, 2005). The number and location of these outlets can be restricted either directly or indirectly through policies that make it difficult to obtain licenses. There would be a reduction in the consumption of alcohol by individuals in the college age if alcohol is sold far from their colleges or areas they like spending their time.

Delivery of information

This information can be delivered through law enforcement officers to the college students through college presidents, student and community leaders. The information can be delivered through seminars and sessions that are aimed at sensitizing college students of reduction of alcohol consumption.

Statistics on drunk driving among the college age-group

According to research, drinking and driving by college students is considered to be a major public health issue. One in every five college student admits to drive while they are drunk. About 40% of college students have acknowledged that they have ever been drove by a drunk driver. Another worrying fact is that the tendency of driving under the influence of alcohol starts when a college student attains the minimum legal age for driving. College students very limited experience in driving and hence making drunk driving by college students more hazardous.

Measuring success of action plan

In order to find out whether the action plan is successful or not fresh statistics can be taken on the number of accidents due to drunk driving among college students. If the number of accidents have decreased then it means that the action plan implemented was effective.

References

DeJong, W. (2005). Preventing alcohol-related problems on campus: Impaired driving : A guide for program coordinators. Bethesda, Md.?: Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention ;.

Miller, J. (2008). A Drunk Driving Prevention Program for Your Students. The American Biology Teacher, 199-205.

Parks, P. (2010). Drunk driving. San Diego, CA: Reference Point Press.

Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels

Name

Professor

Course

Date

Situational Approach

Case 5.1: Marathon Runners at Different Levels

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

Part 4

Case 5.2: Why Aren’t They Listening?

Part 1

The behavior of David, in this case, indicates that he is a supporting leader, high supportive but low directive. He does not coerce anybody into coming to the seminar and believes it should be a personal initiative.

Part 2

The mid-level managers are in Developmental level 2 (D2) because their level of education, position, and probable experience mean that they have some competence but their lack of appreciation and support for the training is indicative of their low commitment.

Part 3

Although Jim is trying to get his people to take initiative, which is quite an effective leadership tool if successful, he should have defined the direction and the objectives of the training through a prior discussion with the kid-managers. Support can only be guaranteed by inclusion that is why he should have discussed with the group and create concise and realistic goals as well as deadlines. Jim fails to give his group a sense of responsibility for this training.

Part 4

Jim being a senior official has the capacity to demand some accountability. He can do this by developing questioning techniques and giving feedback to create a more engaging environment. He needs to set meaningful goals, which should make the managers find value in the time they are spending on that training. Without these objectives, no strategy can make these managers are more engaged.

Works Cited

Northouse, Peter G. Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications, 2018.

Action Potential and the Pathway a Receptor Takes.

Name

Due date

Topic: Action Potential and the Pathway a Receptor Takes.

Action potential is a short lasting event in which electrical membrane potential of a cell rises and falls. It occurs in several kinds of animal cells known as neurons, muscle cells and endocrine cells. Action potential is the first step to what leads to contraction of a muscle (Sherwood, 2010). This is known as nerve impulses. The skin is the largest sensory organ that allows reception of pain, pleasure and pressure. The type neuron involved is the sensory neuron an external stimulation to pressure, temperature, light, or sound. All this alter the ionic permeabilities of the membrane and its voltage. The main requirement for generation of action potential is through membrane voltage at the hillock is raised above the threshold for initialization of impulse. Action potentials are mainly generated by excitatory postsynaptic potentials, neuron-transmitter are released by pre-synaptic molecules that bind to receptors on the post-synaptic (Sherwood, 2010). This bond helps open ionic channels that change the permeability of the cell membrane hence membrane potential. Neuron transmission can also occur through electrical synapses. Through exchange of sodium ions and potassium ions between extracellular fluids and the intracellular fluid generates the flow of impulses in the neuron which leads to depolarization. The action potential at the hillock propagates a long wave through the axon, the current flows through the axon and spreads out along the membrane. There are two types of synapses dendrites and the axon boutons. Dendrites receive transmission in the pre-synaptic neuron. Emerging out of the soma is the axon hillock that has a high concentration of voltage activated sodium channels. Axon is insulated by a myelin sheath. Action potential in the skeletal muscle results from depolarization of the cell membrane which opens voltage sensitive sodium channels these become inactivated and the membrane becomes repolarised through outward current of potassium ions on the outside. Some of the muscles involved in reception are the skeletal muscles and that are mostly involved joints are hinge joints that move only in one direction forming an angle of 180 degrees. The importance of reflex action is to prevent us from getting hurt further or to drive us out of danger and harm.

Sherwood, L. (2010). Human physiology: from cells to systems (7th ed.). Australia: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.