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CARCINOGENIC AFFECT OF GRILLED FOOD ON THE BODY

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TOC o “1-3” h z u Abstract PAGEREF _Toc536749327 h 3Introduction PAGEREF _Toc536749328 h 4How carcinogen is determined by researchers PAGEREF _Toc536749329 h 6i.Laboratory studies PAGEREF _Toc536749330 h 6ii.Studies in people PAGEREF _Toc536749331 h 8What happens when meat is grilled? PAGEREF _Toc536749332 h 9The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) PAGEREF _Toc536749333 h 12Mode of exposure to the PAHs PAGEREF _Toc536749334 h 13Health effects of PAHs in the human body PAGEREF _Toc536749335 h 13Short term health effects of the PAHs PAGEREF _Toc536749336 h 14Long term health effects of the PAHs PAGEREF _Toc536749337 h 15Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs) PAGEREF _Toc536749338 h 16Mode of exposure of the HCAs to humans PAGEREF _Toc536749339 h 17Carcinogenicity of the HCAs PAGEREF _Toc536749340 h 18Health effects of the HCAs on the human body PAGEREF _Toc536749341 h 192-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) PAGEREF _Toc536749342 h 19Carcinogenic affect to the cells in the human body PAGEREF _Toc536749343 h 21Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc536749344 h 23References PAGEREF _Toc536749345 h 24

CARCINOGENIC AFFECT OF GRILLED FOOD ON THE BODY

Abstract

Food grilling is one of the common practices that is adopted by a large number of the America population. Barbeque remains to be the favorite meals especially when on holidays or when parties celebrate their good times in the open. Grilling of food has been said to have elevated the levels of carcinogenic chemicals in food that include the heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). HCAs and PAHs are produced when foods are cooked at high temperatures above 300 degrees Fahrenheit. The two compounds are said to be carcinogenic when they come into contact with the human cells as they increase the probability of mutations among the human cells. The intake of the HCAs and PAHs can be through ingestion of grilled food contain the carcinogenic content and as well as through inhalation especially for the person preparing the food. Regular cleaning of the grills as well as grilling food at low temperatures may help in reducing the level of HCAs and PAHs in the foods and therefore minimizes the chances of cancer attack.

IntroductionCarcinogen refers to any of the substances to which promotes carcinogenesis that is responsible for the formation of cancer (Grimmer, 2018)7. The ability of the carcinogen to cause cancer is due to its ability to damage the genome or the disruption of the cellular metabolic process. Several radioactive substances can be considered carcinogenic, but the carcinogenicity can be attributed to the radiation, for example, the alpha particles as well as the gamma rays that are emitted by the carcinogenic substances. The common examples of the non-radioactive carcinogenic substances that are taken into the body through inhalation include the tobacco smoke, asbestos, and some dioxins.

Cancer refers to any of the diseases to which the normal cells get damaged and therefore do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they are expected through mitosis. The carcinogens are known to increase the risk of cancer, and this is achieved through the alteration of the metabolism or through damaging of the DNA directly in the cells, and this interferes with the biological processes and as well induces the uncontrolled, malignant division, that eventually leads to the formation of tumors. In the case of severe DNA damage, it leads to the programmed cell death, but if the programmed cell death pathway gets damaged, then the cell is unable to prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell.

Figure showing the cell cycle between a normal cell and a cancer cell

A large number of people worry that substances or sequential exposures into their environment may be liable for causing cancer. Cancer is caused by the changes in the cell’s DNA. The DNA is the genetic blueprint of the cell, whereas some of the changes in the cells can be inherited from the parents, most of them are induced through the ingestion or inhalation of chemicals into the body thereby affecting the cells negatively, resulting in mutation and other conditions such as uncontrolled activities such as cell growth. The induced factors are as well-known as the environmental factors, and they include a wide range of exposures. The exposures include; the lifestyle factors that include physical activity, tobacco uses as well as nutrition. Naturally occurring exposures include the ultraviolet light, infectious agent and random gas. Medical treatments are also another environmental cause for the cell changes with such treatments including chemotherapy as well as the drugs that suppress the immune system. Pollution, household as well as workplace exposures cannot be left behind among the environmental agents or factors that lead to alteration of the cell’s DNA. Some of these factors are behavioral and can be changed through the adoption of the required behaviors. Lifestyle factors such as nutrition is an individual factor, and this implies that it is controlled by the personal behaviors that may include dieting as well as the nature of cooking their food before consumption.

The substances and exposures that are known to cause cancer are the carcinogens, with some of them having no direct effect to the cell’s DNA but lead to cancer in other ways such as causing the cells to divide at a faster rate than for the normal cells and this increases the chances that the DNA alteration will occur. Carcinogens do not cause cancer in every case, all the time as the substances known to have carcinogen vary in the levels of their cancer-causing potential (Poirier, 2018)12. Some of the carcinogens may cause cancer after a prolonged period with high levels of exposure while others take a shorter time to develop. For any particular individual, the risk of cancer development depends on many factors that include how they are exposed to a carcinogen, their genetic makeup as well as the intensity of the exposure.

How carcinogen is determined by researchersTesting for carcinogenic properties on food substances has often proved to be difficult especially for cancer as it is unethical to test for substances by exposing the populations to it and seeing whether they contract cancer from the substance. Due to this, researchers and scientists have devised other ways to test for the carcinogen.

Laboratory studies

Most of the testing is done in the laboratory not only for the carcinogenic products but for a wide range of substances across the globe. Laboratories have therefore been an essential component in the testing process as scholars have been able to identify the causes, as well as the treatment of the various conditions that have for a long time, caused discomfort to the people. Scientists obtain much of their data regarding whether a substance is capable of causing cancer from the laboratory studies that are carried in the cell cultures and animals (Greenstein, 2016)6. As there are a large number of substances to be tested in the laboratory which are both natural and human-made, the scientists use the pre-existing knowledge about the chemical structures, the extent of human exposure, results from the other laboratory tests as well as other factors that are relevant in the selection for chemical testing. For example, the scientists can have the idea regarding whether a substance might cause a problem through a comparison to a similar chemical to which have been studied in the past.

Laboratory studies alone cannot predict that a substance can cause cancer in individuals all the time, virtually all the known human carcinogens to which have been previously tested to cause cancer as well cause cancer in the laboratory animals. In most of the cases, the carcinogens cause cancer in laboratory animals during testing, and consequently, they are found to cause cancer in humans (Grimmer, 2018)7. Most of the studies of potential carcinogens expose the laboratory animals to doses that are higher than those exposed to humans. The reason behind it is because the cancer risk can only be detected in a relatively small group of animals. It has not always been clear if the results from the laboratory animal studies will be the same as that of the human as they are normally exposed to the substances. For example, the effects that are seen in the laboratory studies with very high doses of the substances may not have the same effects when the doses are exposed at a lower concentration or the effect of a substance when it is inhaled may not necessarily be the same as when typically applied on the skin. The difference also exists in that the bodies of the laboratory animals as well that of humans may not always substances in the same way. For the safety reasons, it is presumed that the exposures to which are caused by cancer at the larger doses in animals may as well be responsible for causing cancer in people. It is not possible to know how the exposure dose might affect the risk, but it is reasonable for the public health purposes to assume that lowering the human dosage of exposure will be able to reduce the risk of attaining cancer.

Studies in peopleApart from the laboratory testing, human studies as well can be used in the testing of carcinogen in the bid to identify their presence, and this is done through the epidemiologic studies. The epidemiologic studies look at the human populations to determine the factors that might be responsible for and may be linked to the onset of cancer (Gillison et al. 2015)5. The epidemiologic studies as well also provide important information, although they have their limits as the humans do not live in a controlled environment making the epidemiologic studies to be hard to achieve. People get exposed to many substances at any of the given time, especially at their workplace. They also exposed through the food that they consume, and it is unlikely that they are aware of what they have consumed and as well their exposure may remain unnoted to them as they even don’t remember of all the exposures that they have passed through in their past activities. Cancer development is not a single day thing, and this implies that the onset of cancer takes decades between the exposure to carcinogen and the onset of cancer and therefore it can be very difficult to link any particular exposure to cancer.

Through a combination of data from both types of studies, that is the laboratory studies and human studies; the scientists try their best to make an educated assessment of a substance with the ability to trigger the onset of cancer in the body of the humans. When there is enough evidence which is conclusive, the substance can, therefore, be labeled as a carcinogen. In the instance that the evidence is not conclusive, there is a consideration for the substance to be named as a carcinogen, although at sometimes there is not enough evidence to be certain in either way.

Human mostly takes in carcinogen through foods that are contaminated with carcinogen. Grilled meat and maize are among the leading causes of carcinogen intake into the body (Bansal et al. 2015)1. Holidays and leisure times are always characterized by an increase in demand for grilled meat, and this means that a large number of people do engage in the consumption of this type of food. Grilled meat is delicious and can create a delicious summer meal. The main concern, however, arises in the method of preparation for the barbeque as it involves grilling the meat at high temperatures which can quickly turn the perfect meal into carcinogenic making it no longer safe for consumption.

What happens when meat is grilled?Grilling meat as said earlier involves exposing the meat to high temperatures making it carcinogenic. There are two types of chemical reactions that occur during the preparation of barbequed meat. The initial chemical reaction involves fat drippings from the meat, and this leads to the creation of smoke that contains the chemicals polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Kamankesh et al. 2015)9. When the smoke produced surrounds the barbeque during the process of cooking, it gets to transfer the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons onto the meat on the grill.

The second case, when the meat is grilled at high temperatures, above 300 degrees Fahrenheit and for a long period, some reactions occur in the food, and these reactions create heterocyclic amines (HCAs). The heterocyclic amines are mostly found in the meat that has been grilled or fried, and this is characterized by high-temperature cooking. Lower temperature cooking methods such as baking and boiling produce the least amount of heterocyclic amines. It is also significant for the individuals to remember that charcoal and gas grilling both expose the meat and other foods to high temperatures.

When any meat is cooked over the flames or at very high temperatures, the muscle proteins tend to react with the heat to form various compounds the HCAs (Sobral et al. 2018)15. The HCAs have been attributed to, cause the cellular DNA alterations that are associated with the development of certain types of cancer in the human body. According to studies, the consumption of these chemicals, that, is the HCAs and the PAHs that are found on grilled meat have been attributed to the increased risks of colon, breast, pancreatic, prostrate as well as gastric cancers, mostly if the meat gets to be thoroughly cooked through surface charring.

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Figure 1: The formation of HCA compounds during grilling

The HCAs are formed when substances such as the amino acids, creatine, and sugars get to react at high temperatures, and this mostly occurs in meat cooked at high temperatures (Oz & Seyyar, 2016)11. The PAHs are found in the smoke of the open grills, and they are consequently dropped into the meat during the process of grilling. The PAHs can as well be formed during the other food preparation stages and processes, and also, they can as well be found in the cigarette smoke as well as the car exhaust fumes. The formation of the HCAs and the PAHs in the cooked meat tend to vary according to the type of meat that is being prepared, the duration and the period of cooking as well as the cooking method that is used. In an example, a barbeque that is well done and grilled will have higher concentrations of the HCAs. A cooking method that exposes the meat to smoke contribute to the meat being attacked by the PAHs, and this makes the meat contaminated.

Table1: Lifetime average weighted intake of the HCAs in the United States

HCA Type Average Intake by men (ng/kg/day) Average Intake by women (ng/kg/day)

PhiP6 6.2

MelQx1.1 1.2

DiMelQx0.2 0.21

IQ 0.23 0.18

There has been great evidence that has been associated with the high consumption of the charred meat on a regular basis with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer by 60 percent. The PAHs and the HCAs are capable of damaging the DNA only after they are metabolized by the specific enzymes that are found in the body through a process referred to as bio-activation. According to studies, the activity of the enzymes can vary from one person to another; the information may be relevant to the cancer risks associated with the exposure to the PAHs and HCAs compounds. Numerous epidemiologic studies have incorporated the use of detailed questionnaires to examine the participant’s meat consumption as well as their meat cooking methods to make an inference of the levels of the HCAs and the PAHs exposed to them during the consumption.

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)The PAHs are developed in the case where substances get to be burned, for this case the grilling of meat to obtain a barbequed food. Grilled meat is sweet to consume and is more appealing to a large number of people due to the sweet aroma produced during the grilling process. The PAHs can also be found at the places where the coal-gasification sites had been previously located. It is attributed that breathing of the smoke or getting into contact with the contaminated soil from such sites exposes an individual to the PAHs. Some of the PAHs may be responsible for causing cancer and may affect the kidneys, eyes, as well as the liver and therefore the PAHs, are among the carcinogenic compounds in grilled meat that may have adverse effects to the human body.

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds induced to the food prepared through grilling. The PAHs are a group of chemicals occurring naturally in the coal, gasoline and crude oil. The compounds are as well present in products that are produced from the fossil fuels that include asphalt and creosote. In the instance where coal is converted to natural gas, the PAHs are released, and this explains why some of the coal-gasification sites tend to have elevated levels of the compound. The polycyclic aromatic carbons can as well be released into the air during the burning of fossil fuels, organic compounds, and garbage. The less efficient the burning process, the more PAHs tend to be produced. The PAHs are produced naturally through natural activities such as volcanoes as well as forest fires.

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be found throughout the environment and this include in the air, water and the soil, they can persist in the environment for a longer period probably for months or years. There are hundreds of PAHs that do exist but the most common ones include: Acenaphthene Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, Anthracene Fluoranthene, Benzo(a)anthracene Fluorene, Benzo(a)pyrene Indo(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, Benzo(b)fluoranthene Naphthalene, Benzo(k)fluoranthene Phenanthrene and Chrysene Pyrene (Henríquez-Hernández et al. 2017)8.

Mode of exposure to the PAHs

The air can at sometimes be contaminated by the PAHs, but the levels can vary depending on the area and region where the person is based. In the urban areas, the levels of the PAHs can be elevated to at least ten times greater than those in the rural areas. A person may be exposed to the PAHs in the soil near the hazardous areas such as the coal mines or areas to where woods have been burned. In the United States, low levels of the PAHs have been found in the drinking water supplies meaning that a large number of the populations are at the verge of being exposed to the PAHs chemicals.

At home, the PAHs can be found in tobacco smoke, fireplaces as well as from the smoke from the burning woods and stoves as well as some foods. Barbequing, charring or the smoking of food over the fire increases the levels of the PAHs in the food being prepared and this include activity such as grilling food like meat (Ledesma, Rendueles & Díaz, 2016)10. Other types of food such as roasted coffee, refined vegetable oil, vegetables, grains, and roasted peanuts may contain low levels of the PAHs, and therefore any food that has been passed or cooked under excessive heat especially roasting have a certain percentage of PAH in them.

Health effects of PAHs in the human body

PAH is a harmful chemical compound, and this means that it has a negative effect on the health of the person when taken along with other foods. During the process of grilling meat, it is inevitable that the PAHs are absent in the meat and any means to clean the grills will only reduce the levels of the PAHs in the meat. At any given point as long as the meat has been prepared through grilling, the PAHs has to be present. The frequent consumption of such barbequed meat implies that a person consumes PAHs in low concentration and this, therefore, might not be noted, however, more consumption over a long period implies that the levels of the PAHs continue to increase in the individual’s body. When ingested into the body at low concentrations, the effects of the PAHs might not be felt, but the more accumulation increases the chances of causing a tremendous impact into the body tissues of the victim. Higher concentrations of the PAHs in the body may be lethal, and this means that the chances of attaining a deadly condition like cancer are very high.

The health effects that are attributed to PAHs exposure mostly depends on the amount of PAHs that have entered the body, the period of exposure to the PAHs as well as the body’s response to the PAHs after ingestion or exposure. It should be noticed that a person can intake PAHs through smoke or through the consumption of the foods that are contaminated with the PAHs and this most specifically may be from the grilling of meat. Depending on the above reasons, the health effects of the PAHs can either be long term or short term, and this means that the lower the exposure or accumulation of the PAH into the body implies a short term effect while the higher the level of exposure and accumulation imply a long term effect and a higher risk of fatality.

Short term health effects of the PAHs

It is not clear of the ability of the PAHs to induce the short-term health effects to the individuals. However, the occupational exposures to high levels of the PAHs and other mixtures can result in various symptoms that can be said to be the short-term effects of PAHs consumption or exposure. The symptoms include eye irritation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting as well as confusion. Despite the manifestation of these symptoms, it is not yet known which of the specific PAHs compounds and mixtures is responsible for the causation of the symptoms. The mixtures of the PAHs are known to cause effects on the skin of animals and humans, and this includes the skin irritation and inflammation. Some of the compounds of the PAHs such as the anthracene, naphthalene, and benzo(a)pyrene are known to be skin irritants. Benzo(a)pyrene and anthracene have been reported to be skin sensitizers, for example, they are used to cause an allergic skin response in both humans and animals (Rengarajan et al. 2015)13. The short-term effects of the PAHs to the children are the same as to those of adults. However, the children with lower body weights compared to adults require a lower exposure less than that of adults for the same health effects to be effected onto them and this, therefore, depends on the ability of the body to fight against the mutagens as well as the surface area of the individual.

Long term health effects of the PAHsThe accumulation of the PAHs for a longer period may result in adverse health effects into the human body. Various health effects can be attributed from the prolonged exposure to the PAHs, and these may include: cataracts, skin damage, and photosensitization also known as sensitization to sunlight. Another long-term effect includes the kidney and liver damage aplastic anemia, a condition that effect on the bone cells in the bone marrow that produces the red blood cells. The repeated contact of the PAHs with the skin may lead to the induction of redness as well as skin inflammation. Most of the animals that have been exposed to some levels of the PAHs over longer periods during the laboratory studies have developed lung cancer from the inhalation, skin cancer that has resulted from the skin contact as well as stomach cancer that result from the ingestion of foods contaminated with the PAHs. According to the long-term studies that were conducted among the workers exposed to a mixture of the PAHs and other related workplace chemicals, there have been positive results that indicate an increased risk of the different types of cancer that include the risk of bladder, lung, gastrointestinal as well as skin cancer (Rengarajan et al. 2015)13. The studies, however, have as well reported asthma like symptoms, chronic bronchitis, lung abnormalities as well as reduced immune function. However, despite the causation of the above conditions, it is not clear from the studies as to whether it is the exposure to the PAHs to which was the cause as there were other potential cancer-causing agents during the period of exposure.

Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs)The heat during summer is a compelling weather condition that catches the attention of many people in the fields and during these times, barbequing is one of the best methods of preparing food. During the summer, millions of people not only the Americans fire up outdoor grills, especially during holidays. According to research, a large number of individuals who happens to own grills, use their grills all year round preparing the barbeque and that only 44 percent of the owners use the grills 1-2 times a week during the peak seasons. During the preparation, that is the grilling of meat either beef, chicken, fish or pork, some chemicals are produced, and these include the heterocyclic amines (HCAs, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), acrylamide as well as the advanced glycation end products to which are termed by researchers to being mutagenic. A mutagenic substance is that which is capable of causing a mutation or structural damage to the DNA of the cell. Besides, the chemicals produced can be associated with the development of cancer cells in the various organ tissues of the human body and therefore can be as well termed as being carcinogenic.

The heterocyclic amines are potent and mutagenic compounds that are developed through the use of cooking methods that use high temperatures such as barbequing or grilling over an open flame, and this is more common on foods such as meat, fish and poultry. The heterocyclic amines are created when the amino acids which are also the building blocks for the proteins, creatine that are the compounds found in meat, as well as the sugar molecules, get to react with each other at high temperatures. Due to their protein content, even the eggs when cooked at high temperatures may result in the production of the HCAs. Scholars and researchers have been able to isolate more than 17 compounds of different HCAs that are as a result of the grilling, pan frying, and boiling of meat, fish, and poultry. Among the 17 compounds, four of them have gained the attention of the researchers due to the carcinogenic characteristics. The HCAs chemical compounds include: 2-Amino-3-Methylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline (IQ), 2-Amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoline (MeIQ), 2-Amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx) and 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) (Stavros et al. 2015)16.

Mode of exposure of the HCAs to humansSince most of these compounds of the HCAs are carcinogenic, it is important for the individuals to be aware of the risk of exposure to the compounds. The exposure to the HCAs in general and the IQ, MelQ, PhIp and the MelQx in specific is achieved through the consumption of meat that has been prepared on high temperatures (Garko, 2016)4. However, according to the scientific research, it has been detected that the HCAs can as well be harbored in the processed food-flavorings and the cigarette smoke. Regarding the occupation, the food handlers and especially those preparing the meat are prone to a high risk of being exposed to the HCAs through inhalation of the smoke and aerosolized particles during the preparation of the meat or foods that are rich in proteins.

According to the statistics, it has been reported that the estimated dietary exposure to the total HCAs to a person ranges from less than 1-17 ng/kg of the total weight of the individual in a day. Regarding the total concentration of the HCAs in cooked meat, the range is from less than one to about 500 ng/kg, though the concentrations of the HCAs are typically less than 100ng/g. In addition, the pan residues are deemed to always have high concentrations of the HCAs compared to the cooked meat, and therefore, when the preparing gravy from the meat drippings and grease, it is always essential to be aware that the gravy will contain huge amounts or high concentrations of the HCAs due to the residues in the pan. The cooks can be predisposed to relatively high amounts of HCAs through the inhalation the smoke containing aerosolized particles that are generated in the process of preparing meat.

Carcinogenicity of the HCAsIn general, the HCAs are considered to be potent and mutagenic compounds when they are exposed to humans. There have been numerous researches, and experiments that have been conducted with laboratory animals such as rats and mice and the results of the research have indicated that HCAs are cancer-causing chemicals. In an example, in both mice and rats, the oral administration of the MiIQ resulted in the development of tumors along the forestomach of the males and the cecum, liver, and colon in the females. In the female and male rats, the oral administration of the MeiQ resulted in cancerous tumors developing in the colon, oral cavity as well as in the zymbal glands.

The MeIQx’s carcinogenicity was demonstrated through its oral administration and the consequent the development of the cancerous tumors in the multiple tissue sites such as the lung tumors in the females, liver tumors in the males as well as the lymphoma and leukemia in male mice. In the rats, the formation of the liver and the zymbal gland tumors in both males and females, clitoral land tumors in the females as well as the skin tumors in males are evidence of the carcinogenicity of the HCAs compound. Both of the two types of the HCAs, PHIP, and IQ caused tumors in multiple tissues sites during an experiment with rats, mice, and monkeys (Fahrer & Kaina, 2017)3. Adding to the experimental animal models, the HCAs have been shown as being mutagenic agents through the use of the Ames test. According to the results, about 80-85 percent of the HCAs compounds that were identified as being mutagenic by the Ames test was proved to be carcinogenic in the animal tests. Besides, the potency of the Ames tested agents that were determined as being mutagenic correlated with the carcinogenic potency of the agents.

Health effects of the HCAs on the human body2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)Among the environmental factors that are linked to carcinogenesis among the humans, eating habits that are mostly characterized by the diet is a major determinant especially the consumption of meat. When fish and other meat is being cooked, some mutagenic compounds get produced, and these are the HCAs; according to research, the HCAs have been shown to be carcinogenic through bioassays in rodents. Among the most abundant of the HCAs, compounds are the 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP). The PhIP has been shown to induce tumors of the colon, prostrate as well as the breast of the animal models (David et al. 2018)2. The results that the PhIP can induce cancer among the three tissues sites where the tumors occurred with the high incidence being in the western part of the globe. The presence of the PhIP in their diet that is rich in cooked meat make an inference that the compound is capable of posing a significant threat to the people’s health. In support of the carcinogenic evidence of the PhIP in the animals, the PhIP-DNA adducts have as well been detected in the human prostate, colon and breast tissues. Whereas a number of the epidemiologic studies have crucial reports that that indicate the associations between the intake of the red meat, PhIP intake and the consequent development of the breast, colon and the prostate cancer. Generally, it has been acknowledged that the carcinogenic potential of the HCAs compound, PhIP is initiated with the development of the PhIP-DNA adducts that has the eventual results of mutation (David et al. 2018)2. The mechanism of PhIP to causing mutation involves the primary CYP1A2-mediated oxidation to the N-hydroxy derivative that is then followed by esterification that results in an unstable product that is responsible for the generation of nitrenium ions which attacks and

Accounting, The balance sheet and income statementsStudent’s Name

Affiliation

Course

Date

The balance sheet and income statements are used in financial accounting because they are regarded as the most important financial statements. The Balance sheet lists assets and liabilities of the organization in a given financial period or fiscal year. An income statement was also known as Profit and loss statement and it’s a report for income and expenses over a specific period of time maybe quartile year.

In regard to performance an income statement shows how a company has performed by listing sales and expenses and the resulting profit or loss. A balance sheet summarizes the company’s assets liabilities and shareholders’ equity at a specific point in time to analyze how a company pays for things (Weygandt, Kieso, 2008). Income statements report operating results such as, sales and expenses. This allows investors to evaluate company’s performance and gives a prospect on the way forward. The balance sheet on the other hand presents the strengths of a company which enables investors to factually calculate days of working capital. Balance sheets can also identify trends of how net profit is used, receivables and the payables.

A marketing manager should incorporate both the income statement and the balance sheet as they correlate. An income statement can be used for a specific time period to account for the debit and credit between balance sheet at the beginning and end of period as accounting is a double entry system. Although it would be better to use a balance sheet as an income report may be subject to biasness as per the income received .The balance sheet is efficient because it accounts for cash inventory and property on the asset side while accounts payable or long-term debt is accounted on the liability side. (Eisen, 2007).The main difference is that income statements describe the current year’s performance while balance sheet describes the overall position of the company right from the starting year of business to current year and provides information about all assets and liabilities applied in the business.

Reference

Eisen, P. J. (2007). Accounting barron’s accounting barron’s business review series business

Review books. (5 ed., pp. 177-200). New York: Barron’s Educational Series

Weygandt, Kieso, P. D. K. A. L. D. (2008). Hospitality financial accounting (2 ed., pp. 110-145).New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.

ACCT2102 SP21 Comprehensive Problem 1

Answer all questions and Label all work as required

Part 1.

Rhiner Corporation is a manufacturer that uses job-order costing. On January 1, the company’s inventory balances were as follows:

Raw materials$42,000

Work in process$20,000

Finished goods$36,000

The company applies overhead cost to jobs on the basis of direct labor-hours. For the current year, the company’s predetermined overhead rate of $16.50 per direct labor-hour was based on a cost formula that estimated $660,000 of total manufacturing overhead for an estimated activity level of 40,000 direct labor-hours. The following transactions were recorded for the year:

Raw materials were purchased on account, $520,000.

Raw materials used in production, $465,000. All of the raw materials were used as direct materials.

The following costs were accrued for employee services: direct labor, $605,000; indirect labor, $150,000; selling and administrative salaries, $240,000.

Incurred various selling and administrative expenses (e.g., advertising, sales travel costs, and finished goods warehousing), $357,000.

Incurred various manufacturing overhead costs (e.g., depreciation, insurance, and utilities), $505,000.

Manufacturing overhead cost was applied to production. The company actually worked 42,000 direct labor-hours on all jobs during the year.

Jobs costing $1,685,000 to manufacture according to their job cost sheets were completed during the year.

Jobs were sold on account to customers during the year for a total of $2,750,000. The jobs cost $1,695,000 to manufacture according to their job cost sheets.

Required (Show all work/Calculations!)

What is the journal entry to record the purchase of raw materials?

General Journal Debit($) Credit($)

Work in progress 465000

Raw Materials 465000

(To record the raw materials used in production)

What is the ending balance in Raw Materials? (Show T-Account)

Raw Materials:

Beginning Balance $42000

Add: $520000

Less: Raw materials used in production $-465000

Ending Balance $97000

What is the journal entry to record the labor costs incurred during the year?

General Journal Debit($) Credit($)

Salaries and administrative salaries $240,000

Manufacturing overhead $150,000

Work in progress $605000

Wages payable $995000

(To record the labor cost incurred)

What is the total amount of manufacturing overhead applied to production during the year? (Show complete calculations)

Manufacturing overhead applied=16.50*42000hours= $693000

What is the total manufacturing cost added to Work in Process during the year?

Raw Materials $ 465000

Direct Labour $605000

Manufacturing overhead $693000

Cost added to work in progress $1763000

What is the journal entry to record the transfer of completed jobs that is referred to above?

General Journal Debit($) Credit($)

Finished Goods 1685000

Work in progress 1685000

(To record the transfer of completed jobs)

What is the ending balance in Work in Process?

Beg. Balance $20,000

Raw materials used in production $465,000

Direct labor $605,000

Manufacturing overhead applied $693000 $1685000 Cost of goods sold

End Balance $98000

What is the total amount of actual manufacturing overhead cost incurred during the year? (Show T-Account)Beg. Bal. 0

Indirect labor $150,000

Depreciation,insurance,utilities $505,000

End Bal. $655000

Is manufacturing overhead underapplied or overapplied for the year? By how much?

Overapplied. The applied overhead is more than the actual.

$693000-$655000=$38000

What is the cost of goods available for sale during the year? (Show complete calculations)

Cost of goods available for sale $1721000

Beg. Balance $36,000

Cost of good manufactured $1685000

What is the journal entry to record the cost of goods sold referred to above?

General journal Debit($) Credit($)

Cost of goods sold $1,695,000

Finished goods $1,695,000

What is the ending balance in Finished Goods? (Show T-Account)

Beg. Balance $36000

Manufacturing overhead $1685000 $1695000

End Bal $26000

Assuming that the company closes its underapplied or overapplied overhead to Cost of Goods Sold, what is the adjusted cost of goods sold for the year?

Cost of goods sold $1695000

Less: manufacturing overhead $38000

Adjusted cost of goods sold $1657000

What is the gross margin for the year?

Sale $2,750,000

Less:COGS $1657000

Gross profit $1093000

What is the net operating income for the year?

Gross Profit $1093000

Less:Selling and adm salaries $240,000

Expenses $357,000

Net profit $496000

It is recommended that you work through all journal entries, t-accounts and schedules/statements to correctly formulate your answers.

Al Capone during the Great Depression

Student’s name

Course

Instructor

Date

Al Capone during the Great Depression

Al Capone was one of the most notorious individuals within the United States who was a master of playing around the law and not getting caught. His criminal activities are recorded from 1919 to 1931, and this was the period of the great depression. Therefore, to some extent, he took advantage of this period to engage in criminal activities and earn a lot of money and other benefits he never deserved. Al Capone’s nickname was Scarface, a name he got at the Harvard Inn and later made valid by his brother, who slashed him across the face, making a permanent mark; thus, he was referred to as Scarface. Even though he was involved in many criminal activities, people loved him, which was contrary to the usual social behavior towards a criminal. This paper discusses the life of al Capone concerning crime, the great depression, and the love he got from the public, which is often deemed inappropriate.

Firstly the great depression affected the United States of America in considerable ways. It is referred to as the great depression since that was the only time the global GDP fell by 15%. It began on October 29, 1999, with the black Tuesday whereby the United States stock markets crashed, and this became world news. The great depression had devastating effects on both individuals and the government. Therefore, it can be deduced that the effects the great depression had on individuals and the general society provided an excellent opportunity for people like al Capone to come up and go on with their activities in an almost unnoticeable manner. This was because the government was fully occupied trying to find ways to bring up the sinking economy. It can also be attributed to the financial systems damage that al Capone never used a bank but used cash to avoid being tracked down in all his dealings.

Al Capone was born in 1899 in Brooklyn by his parents, who were both immigrants in the search for a better life. From the background of Capone, there was not a single indication that he could become a criminal since his background was impoverished and his parents lived a simple immigrant’s life. He studied at Brooklyn elementary school, and when a teacher disciplined him, he hit back then the principal caned him, and from that time on, he never went back to school. He met Johnny Torrio in Brooklyn, and they developed a relationship such that even after Torrio left Brooklyn, they still communicated. Torrio had been running a gambling operation, and he introduced Capone to a gangster named Frankie Yale. This was the beginning of Capone’s illegal business and criminal activities.

Capone married at the age of 19, and in the desire to be better, he moved t Baltimore with his wife and kid, where he was involved in the gambling and prostitution business. During this time, he was arrested. However, Torrio helped him to get out. He was also involved in political victimization since the person who wanted to be elected was to develop strict laws against them, and he wanted a person who would favor them. In 1924, even some people were shot and killed in the process of trying to convince them to vote for a specific person.

Even though Capone was doing illegal business, he was very generous, and the public liked him, primarily because of this. He was considered to work on the side of the people, and therefore he was loved, and the government could not easily convict him of a crime due to his lack of a trial in terms of financial expenditure.

In conclusion, even though Capone was doing illegal and unlawful, he was loved due to his relations with the public, which included generosity and the art of being charming. However, later he was convicted for 11 years because of tax evasion; he remains a very significant and complex figure among the Americans.

Bibliography

“Al Capone.” n.d. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Accessed October 15, 2021. https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases//al-capone.

‌ “The 1920s.” n.d. Web.archive.org. Accessed October 15, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20111004184642/htp://www.irclibrary.org/sebastianlibrary/george/1920.html.

‌

Name

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Date

Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease is a universal term for various types of heart conditions. These conditions may develop concurrently or lead to other diseases or conditions under this group. Cardiovascular diseases include conditions that affect the heart and vascular. Conditions that affect the heart included but are not limited to:

Angina is a pain felt in the chest as a result of reduced blood flow into the heart.

Arrhythmia is the disorganized beating of the heart or an irregular heartbeat.

Congenital heart disease is a problematic heart function developed from birth.

Coronary artery disease is a disorder that upsets the arteries that transport blood and feed oxygen to the heart muscles.

A heart attack is an abrupt obstruction of blood flowing to the heart.

Heart failure is a disorder where the heart is unable to contract or relax routinely.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a type of heart failure caused by the thickening of heart muscles leading to electrical instability

Dilated cardiomyopathy is a situation where the heart gets larger undermining its ability to pump blood properly.

Vascular illnesses are those that affect vessels around the heart and all body parts. They include:

Peripheral artery disease is the thinning of arteries decreasing the flow of blood to the limbs.

Renal artery disease

An aneurysm is the formation of plaques on the walls of vessels, making them narrow and limiting the flow of blood.

peripheral venous disease

ischemic stroke, which happens when vessels carry a clot to the head resulting in brain damage.

venous blood clots

blood clotting disorders

Buerger’s disease

Raynaud’s disease

Causes

Atherosclerosis is the most common reason for cardiovascular diseases (Felman, 2019). It is the accumulation of fatty plaques in arteries, which makes the artery thick and stiff around the walls inhibiting blood flow to tissues and organs in general. Diabetes, health conditions caused by viruses, myocarditis, or congenital heart problems can cause damage to the circulatory system. Congenital heart disease develops before birth in most cases and results from genes, medication, and medical conditions. The structure of the heart can also change as an individual grows old causing heart defects. The causes of cardiomyopathy are not well known. The various types of cardiomyopathy may result from damage to the heart, infections, medication, and toxins.

Risk factors

Risk factors for developing cardiovascular disease include:

Age. The risk of damage to the heart, thick or weakened heart muscles, and narrowed vessels increase with age.

Sex. Men are more susceptible to heart diseases, with women facing more risk after menopause.

Family history. Several heart conditions are hereditary. If a parent or a sibling develops a coronary artery disease at an early age, 55 and 65 years for males and females, respectively, there is a higher risk of developing it as an offspring or a sibling (American Diabetes Association, 2016).

Obesity

Smoking. Nicotine tar contracts blood vessels, and the carbon monoxide in the smoke damages the inner lining making as a smoker more vulnerable to atherosclerosis. Smokers experience more heart attacks than non-smokers.

Some chemotherapy medication and radiation therapy increase the risk of heart problems.

Physical inactivity

Unchecked diet. A diet with too much salt, fat, cholesterol, and sugar can increase the chances of developing heart disease.

Stress

Poor hygiene. Poor hygiene increases the chances of heart infections. Poor dental hygiene is another risk factor.

Diabetes

Prevention

Most cardiovascular diseases are preventable through various practices as listed below:

Avoiding tobacco and alcohol

Eating fresh produce

Eating meals with less salt, sugar, and saturated fat.

Leading a non-sedentary lifestyle

Symptoms

The symptoms are dependent on the condition and vary accordingly. Common symptoms may include:

Pressure on the chest or chest pains.

Pain or uneasiness on the back, arms, jaw, left shoulder, or elbows.

Fatigue

Nausea

Shortness of breath

Dizziness

Cold sweats

Diet Recommendations

Eat the various nutritious foods from every food group. Eating plenty of foods does not mean the body is getting the nutrients it needs for normal functions and keep healthy. Nutrient-rich foods have fewer calories, which helps with weight control, blood pressure, and cholesterol.

An overall healthy diet emphasizes:

An assortment of fresh produce, fruit, and vegetables

Dairy products with low-fat content

Non-tropical vegetable oils

Whole grains

Skinless white meat (poultry and fish)

Nuts and legumes

Meals should have limited sweetened beverages, trans fats, sodium, fats, and red meat. When eating red meat on occasion, make sure to choose the leanest cut offered. One can also adopt the DASH eating plan (The American Heart Association, 2017). It is also essential to mind food with fewer nutrients.

Do not add sauces, salts, or sugars to fresh, canned or frozen produce. These fruits and vegetables should replace high-calorie foods. Grain servings should contain whole grains rich in fiber. Eat a variety of fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids at least two times each week (Manson et al. 2019). Reduce sweet and sweetened beverages intake and drink alcohol moderately. Avoid tobacco.

References

American Diabetes Association. (2016). 8. Cardiovascular disease and risk management. Diabetes care, 39(Supplement 1), S60-S71.

Manson, J. E., Cook, N. R., Lee, I. M., Christen, W., Bassuk, S. S., Mora, S., … & D’Agostino, D. (2019). Marine n− 3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 380(1), 23-32.

The American Heart Association. (2017, August 15). The American Heart Association Diet and Lifestyle Recommendations. Www.heart.org. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/aha-diet-and-lifestyle-recommendationsFelman, A. (2019, July 9). Cardiovascular Disease: Types, Symptoms, Prevention, and Causes. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/257484.php#statistics

Accounts Payable Management and its Impact on Profitability

The golden rule of balance sheet demands that the sum total of liabilities and shareholder’s equity of a company must be equal to the assets of that company. Despite this statement appearing to be obvious, most firms make very big errors whenever their balance sheet doesn’t balance properly. This leads to serious problems with financial projections. Accounts payable are what a company usually owes its vendors or suppliers from which it purchases its supplies and inventory. Accounts payable is often located on a company’s balance sheet. They are the current liability of any company and are clearly outlined on the right hands side of the company’s balance sheet. They are usually paid to the supplier within a maximum duration of one year.

Just like any liability or asset, a company’s unpaid bills can have a very significant impact on the overall profitability either negatively or positively. Accounts payable affect the profitability of a company through two major ways: company’s cash flow and the company’s relationship with its vendors or suppliers. Accounts payable can impact quite positively on a company’s profitability if one has the best practice in managing accounts payables. First, the company will be able to settle its bills on time. This appears to be a rather simple practice though a company that seldom practices it, never has anything going on well with it.

Secondly, if a company pays its bills on time, it is able to elicit trust between itself and its suppliers, irrespective of the number of suppliers it has. By building on the trust between the two parties, the suppliers will be able to provide it with inventory, other suppliers and even offer it better discount rates that will impact significantly on the overall profits of the company. Lastly, best practice in accounts payable management is to strive to facilitate processing of the accounts that should be payable with the least number of staff and amount of paper work. Smoothing out the company’s accounts personnel on payroll increases the profits of the company by a large margin by simply decreasing time spent on paper work and personnel. I strongly hold the view that slowing down payments of suppliers in order to increase the company’s bank balance is unethical and unprofessional. It can lead to deterioration of the existing cordial relationship and trust between the company and its suppliers and this may adversely affect the company future.

References:

Gill, A., Biger, N., & Mathur, N. (2010). The relationship between working capital management and profitability: evidence from The United States. Business and Economics Journal, 10, 1-9.

Moral Reform or Reforming the System in Egypt

Name

Institution

Date

On The State of Egypt by Alaa Al Aswany

The author, Alaa, recalls the two incidences that happened to him during his university education in Cairo and in the U.S. when undertaking his master’s degree. He recognized the differences in the two education system by citing a lack of civilian protection in Egypt as the case in the United States where the students are protected by the institutional policies and regulation. Unlike in the U.S. where the system defines the expected code of conducts, Egypt lacks protection as the power is vested in authority and individuals sitting in those positions have the autonomy and authority to dictate their subjects (Alaa 181). As the author describes it “many people obtain things they do not deserve as a result of their personal connections or their ability to pay bribes, or because the security agencies or the ruling part have selected them.” (Alaa 182).

The above statement described the lack of democracy and moral standing in Egypt as the “the law in Egypt is usually applied only against the weak, who cannot escape it of obstruct it”. Given these statements by the author, I strongly support the need for institutional reforms in Egypt. Reforming the systems and institutions would be an important step toward the creation of a fair and just society for all Egyptians irrespective of one’s social, economic, and religious status. Besides, moral reform is also important as this would bring a change in the moral status of the Egyptian authorities. To make Egypt an equal nation, both moral and institutional reforms must be undertaken.

Reference

Alaa Al A. (2012). On The State of Egypt: A Novelist’s Provocative Reflection. Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press.

Peripherals Module

Schedule:

After deadline.Ended 09/01/2013 11:59 PM EDT

Started:08/30/2013 10:27 PM EDT

Submitted:08/30/2013 11:40 PM EDT

Score:92%

Points:110 out of 120

Question 1

Points: 10 out of 10

In a situation where a handicapped person can only input data into the computer using a stylus or light pen, which keyboard configuration might be the solution?

 A keyboard with internal lighting to support work in low-light conditions.

 A keypad that is projected on an external flat surface.

 A flat waterproof keyboard.

 A split-style keyboard that separates and angles groups of keys into right- and left-hand portions.

Feedback

Correct. This seems to be the best solution since the user could use the stylus or light pen to tap on the displayed keys.

Question 2

Points: 10 out of 10

If you use your desktop computer only for doing schoolwork, which input and output device combination would be best from the options below (considering the best combination of cost, screen resolution, and keyboard design)?

 a gaming keyboard and a 27″ LCD monitor

 a foldable keyboard and a 15″ LCD monitor

 a wireless keyboard and a 24″ LED monitor

 a split-style keyboard and a 30″ LED monitor

Feedback

Correct. The wireless keyboard will work nicely in this situation; and the LED monitor is a very good size.

Question 3

Points: 10 out of 10

You need to back up (make copies of) your critical documents and pictures on your desktop. Which of the following statements would be true for using cloud storage for backups in case your computer experiences a complete failure (will not boot and all files have been lost from the internal hard drive)?

 If your desktop computer or your internal hard drive is not functioning, you can still access those backed up files via another computer with access to the internet.

 You would not need to carry external storage media with you when you use another computer.

 When data is distributed (stored on multiple external websites) there is greater risk of unauthorized physical access to the data.

 All of the above.

 None of the above.

Feedback

Correct. All three statements are true as applied to cloud storage.

Question 4

Points: 10 out of 10

Which device would not be appropriate for holding data, instructions, and information for future use?

 8Gb RAM

 1Tb external hard drive.

 CD or DVD

 Cloud storage

Feedback

Correct. RAM is volatile memory, and all data and instructions will be lost when the computer is turned off.

Question 5

Points: 10 out of 10

Which device would be used to hold data, instructions, and information for future use?

 flash drive

 cloud storage

 hard drive

 none of the above; these are volatile storage devices

 all of the above; these are nonvolatile storage devices

Feedback

Correct. Flash drives, cloud storage, and hard drives are all examples of nonvolatile storage devices.

Question 6

Points: 10 out of 10

Which of the following can be considered an output device?

 stylus

 speaker

 wireless mouse

 microphone

Feedback

Correct. The speaker is used to provide sound data to the user. It is an output device.

Question 7

Points: 10 out of 10

In this diagram of a simple home network, what appears to be missing?

 a server

 an adapter card

 a modem

 a router

Feedback

Correct. Even though this is a wired network, data needs to be sent from and received by the correct computer. The router handles this task.

Question 8

Points: 0 out of 10

In this diagram of a simple home network, what appears to be missing?

 a router

 a server

 an adapter card

 a modem

Feedback

Incorrect. Adapter cards are certainly needed, but they are internal components in each computer and, as such, would not be represented in a diagram of the network

Question 9

Points: 10 out of 10

If you are going to install a completely wireless network in your home, each computer must have:

 a router

 an Ethernet card

 a modem

 a wireless adapter card

Feedback

Correct. This internal component must be found in each computer that needs to connect to the router, and then to the Internet via the modem.

Question 10

Points: 10 out of 10

If you are going to network two computers together using cable connections, each computer must have:

 a modem

 an Ethernet interface card

 a router

 a wireless adapter card

Feedback

Correct. Ethernet interface cards are required to suppport the Ethernet cables which connect the two machine.

Question 11

Points: 10 out of 10

How is data entered into the computer?

 using the circuit board that interfaces with all external components attached to the CPU

 using an electronic device that controls the timing of all peripherals connected to the system unit

 using any type of hardware component that conveys information to one or more people

 using a hardware component that allows submission of data or instructions.

Feedback

Correct. A keyboard, a mouse, a stylus, and a microphone are examples of hardware components that allow the user to enter data or instructions into the computer.

Question 12

Points: 10 out of 10

A webcam would be considered an input device.

 True

 False

Feedback

Correct. A webcam takes an image as input. The webcam itself does not display the image (that is done by an output device such as a monitor).

Close

Ethics Module

Schedule:

After deadline.Ended 09/29/2013 11:59 PM EDT

Started:09/29/2013 1:28 AM EDT

Submitted:09/29/2013 5:34 PM EDT

Score:75%

Points:90 out of 120

Question 1

Points: 10 out of 10

Would the following be considered a violation of a user access agreement?

knowingly uploading or distributing files that contain viruses, spyware, or any other similar software or programs that may damage the operation of another’s computer

 yes

 no

 maybe

Feedback

Correct. Any action which deliberately damages another’s computer is both illegal and a violation of any user access agreement.

Question 2

Points: 10 out of 10

Would the following be considered a violation of a user access agreement? In order to perform assigned job duties, accepting operating system updates daily after logging in to the company network.

 Yes

 No

 Maybe

Feedback

Correct. Accepting system updates is part of keeping the company’s computer operating correctly and securely and is therefore NOT a violation of a user access agreement.

Question 3

Points: 0 out of 10

Would the following be considered a violation of user access agreement?

visiting social networking sites during lunch breaks

 yes

 no

 maybe

Feedback

Incorrect. It depends on whether this activity is expressly forbidden by the user access agreement.

Question 4

Points: 10 out of 10

What is the purpose of a user access agreement?

 to define all approved uses of the company’s IT resources

 to define every sanction to be applied if a violation occurs

 to outline in general the acceptable and unacceptable use of IT resources

 to outline all acceptable and unacceptable behavior of all company employees

Feedback

Correct. The user access agreement gives sufficient detail for acceptable and unacceptable uses of IT resources, but it cannot identify every possible situation.

Question 5

Points: 10 out of 10

For the following scenario, indicate whether the activity would likely be or not be a violation of an employee code of conduct: John uses the color printer in his office to print copies of a flier he has created to publicize his company’s employee picnic.

 likely a violation

 likely not a violation

Feedback

Correct. John is not using the color printer for his own personal fliers, but for ones to promote the company’s employee picnic.

Question 6

Points: 0 out of 10

An employee Code of Conduct will list illegal behaviors, but it will not list unethical behaviors.

 True

 False

Feedback

Incorrect. Both illegal and unethical behaviors can be and frequently are included in an employee Code of Conduct.

Question 7

Points: 10 out of 10

Which aspect of social networking poses the most risk?

 Disclosure of personal information

 Communicating with people who share common interests

 The ability to read others’ posts

 Installing software to enable social networking

Feedback

Correct. Failure to understand and monitor privacy settings in social networking settings poses a risk that too much personal information will be disclosed.

Question 8

Points: 10 out of 10

Which of the following factors determine whether a specific instance of file sharing is legal?

 Is the material being shared copyrighted?

 Is the sharing part of a business operation?

 Does the sharing result in monetary gain for the person doing the sharing?

 Is the site that is being used for the sharing primarily used for illegal sharing?

Feedback

Correct. This is the sole criterion: if the material is copyrighted, then sharing it is illegal.

Question 9

Points: 10 out of 10

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act…

 ensures that Internet service providers (ISPs) have no penalties or obligations resulting from illegal software being posted on their sites.

 allows copying or distribution of copies of copyrighted software.

 provides penalties for bypassing or providing tools to bypass protection mechanisms built into copyrighted software.

 addresses only copyrighted software issues.

Feedback

Correct. The protection mechanisms that prevent a CD or DVD from being copied cannot be removed without penalty, and it is illegal to sell tools to accomplish this removal.

Question 10

Points: 10 out of 10

Using company-owned equipment and software, you write a software program as part of your job requirements. This is an original creation of yours, so are you free to use it outside of work and even sell it to others?

 yes

 no

Feedback

Correct. Typically, work done under company employment directives usually becomes the intellectual property of the company. Personal rights to copyright are ceded to the company.

Question 11

Points: 10 out of 10

In the list below, which online social networking activity might be considered dangerous and possibly result in a negative outcome?

 Postings tips, project photos, and ideas on a hobby-related forum.

 Posting your resume on a job-seeking or job-posting site.

 Posting photos of oneself that might be considered risqué or offensive.

 Posting vacation photos after you have returned home.

Feedback

Correct. What you post may be read by a current or future employer, endangering your current or future employability.

Question 12

Points: 0 out of 10

Which of the following statements is true?

 Cyberbullies attack only minors.

 Cyberstalking is the cyberbullying of an adult.

 Cyberstalkers rarely request face-to-face meetings with their victims.

Feedback

Incorrect. This is the most dangerous outcome of cyberstalking or cyberharassment. The more vulnerable victims are minors.

Close

Name

Instructor

Subject

Date

Moral Standing in Business

The anthropocentric or human-centeredness point of view believes that only creatures with the ability to think and reason rationally have moral standings. This means that animals, plants and ecosystems lack moral rights because they may not have absolute value and their welfare may not be considered for their own sake. Thus, the welfare of the nonliving creatures only matters if they are of benefit to humans. However, Albert Schweitzer, a renowned philosopher, challenged the theory that only humans matter morally.

Albert Schweitzer proposed that all living entities including plants, animals and trees have rights, which should be respected by human beings. He believed that non-human entities especially animals have interests and moral rights because they have independent lives that deserve protection and respectful consideration. In addition, he emphasizes that all living creatures have moral standings since they have interests that deserve reverence. The discipline of philosophy called environmental ethics studies the relation of human beings to non-human entities.

Businesses have direct ethical duties to non-living creatures other than human beings because these creatures have interests and beneficial contribution to the environment. In addition, they have industrial uses and play a role in ecological balance. Destruction of ecosystems and cutting down of trees will destroy the environment and will deprive some industries essential raw materials. Animals such as cows also have immense contributions to entities like the dairy and meat industries. Therefore, nonliving creatures also deserve direct ethical recognition by business entities.

I have referred to the different theories held by various philosophers and analyzed them to answer questions about moral standing. I believe that all creatures whether human or otherwise deserve respect and recognition since they have interests and value in their own right. Therefore, all objects count and are significant to the environment in one way or another.