Category: Uncategorized

Mountain Bikes

It has been a decade in the making, but the mountain bike has become a passion for many people.

Along with this passion it has also become the most environmental way to get from point A to B. It has gone through a very intense evolution process over the past decade.

It all started with some guys from California who took their bikes out for a ride on their day off, they modified their bikes and turned a hobby of theirs into a worldwide phenomenon. The mountain bike’s rapid increase in popularity was influenced by social and economic situations, and by technological improvements that had the needs of bike riders in mind. The introduction of the mountain bike at a bike convention in Long Beach, California, early in the 1980’s coincided with the need for a bike that combined technical superiority, ease of care, and multipurpose use.

Technological advances came extremely fast after it’s introduction into the world. The advances have made riding mountain bikes easier, which makes it possible for the rider to explore new terrain. I hope that this report will be able to provide some information on the subject of mountain bikes and the advances in technology that the bike has gone through, and what might be in the future of the mountain bike.

The road bike has taken more than a hundred years to evolve into the frame that it is being used on todays bicycle. Because of the increasingly popularity of the mountain bike the demand for advances to be made have come very rapidly.

The evolution of the mountain bike has been a stormy one over the past decade. Within one decade the design has changed radically; this is due to three reasons. First, because geometry and design were copied from the first “Stone-Age bikes”; second, because off-road riding created different problems; and third, because innovative frame design mirrored the “spirit of the times”: young, new, dynamic, and strong. The off-road bike required extra stability frame.

It is important to know the basic frame geometry and how to measure it. The combination of tube length and angle determines not only the maneuverability of the bike, but also determines the seating position and the transfer of power. Variances of 1° of the headset angle, or a 1′ (2cm) difference in the distance between the rear-wheel axle and the center of the bottom bracket, can have very serious consequences. Frame Geometry

The basic elements of frame geometry are: A- Height of the seat tube; B-Length of the top tube;

C- Seat-tube angle; D- Headset-tube angle; E- Trail, F- Distance between the rear-wheel axle and the bottom bracket; G- Distance between the front-wheel axle and the bottom bracket; H-Wheelbase; I- Height of the bottom bracket; J- Stem angle; K- Length of the headset tube.

A. Height of the Seat Tube

This is determined by the length of the biker’s inseam. This measurement is only of little importance, because of the different frame designs and the different methods of construction used by different manufacturers.

B. Length of the Top Tube

This length should correspond to the rider’s trunk (length from the seat to the shoulders). With mountain bikes this measurement should be increased by a few inches. This increases the distance between the two axles, which increases the riding comfort and makes for a straight and stable ride. Sometimes the top tube is slightly slanted, this is because some bike frames are designed so high off the ground, the slanted top tube makes for an easier dismount.

C. Seat-Tube Angle

This angle basically determines how the bike will handle. Today the standard for a seat-tube is to be set at a 72° to 73° angle. At 69° to 71°, it is a more comfortable ride, but a sharper angle increases the bike’s agility and ability to climb.

D. Headset-Tube Angle Along with the fork and trail, the headset-tube angle determines the steering characteristics of the bike. A steep angle together with a curved fork reacts more sensitively when steering; a flatter angle reacts

less sensitively. In the past the angle was set at 68°, but today the standard angle of the headset-tube is 71°.

E. Trail

The trail is the distance between two points marked from the center of the headset to the floor and by the extension of a line from the center of the front axle to the floor. This distance depends on the curvature of the fork and the angle of the headset tube. A longer trail makes for easy steering; a short trail causes the bike to react quickly to every movement of the handlebars.

F. Distance between the Rear-Wheel Axle and the Bottom Bracket

The longer this distance is, the more comfortable the ride. A shorter distance creates a “lively action” and a good climbing ability. The average span from the bottom bracket to the rear wheel for a mountain bike is 17″ (43 cm).

G. Distance between the Front-Wheel Axle and the Bottom Bracket

This distance determines the amount of toe clearance. Toe clearance means that the front tire and the tips of the rider’s shoes never come into contact as the rider pedals and turns at the same time. To do this, measure the distance between the center of the axle at the front-wheel hub and the center of the axle of the bottom bracket.

H. Wheelbase

This is the distance between the centers of both the front-wheel and rear-wheel axles. A long wheelbase makes for ease of handling and good straight-ahead riding. A short wheelbase makes for sensitive handling.

I. Height of the Bottom Bracket

This is the distance between the floor and the center of the axle of the bottom bracket. A lower bottom bracket makes the bike more maneuverable; an elevated bottom bracket means more stability and better straight-ahead riding. A very high bottom bracket makes it easier to clear obstacles.

J. Stem Angle

This angle is determined by the inclination of the headset tube. A wider angle gives an easy, more comfortable ride. A narrower angle gives a “sportier” feel. For the comfortable ride the angle should be set from 15° to 25°, for a racer the angle should be between 0° and 10°.

K. Length of the Stem

A longer headset (stem) will distribute the weight of the rider more evenly between the front and rear wheels. Longer headset tubes are more frequently found on racing bikes. A long headset tube is about 51/8″ to 6″ (13 to 15 cm); a short tube measures between 4″ to 43/4″ (10 to 12 cm). All measurements taken together, and their relationship to each other, define a bike’s characteristics. The ability to interpret a frame’s dimensions allows someone to predict a bike’s maneuverability, and allows the biker to determine if a bike will perform to his expectations.Tube Materials

More than 90% of all the mountain bikes used today are made from steel tubes. The steel tubes are all made from high quality steel alloys. Other substances have been added make sure the frame is problem-free as well as having a high degree of stability and flexibility. Although the steel tubes are of exceptional quality, they have one major disadvantage, their weight. Since weight is one of the basic problems of a mountain bike, there has been a search for a material that was light in weight as well as strong.

Aluminum has rapidly become the tube material of choice in the past few years. A decade ago aluminum was still an “exotic” metal, a term used to describe titanium today. The use of carbon fibre and kevlar are also being used more for the construction of bike frames. In recent years these materials have been used in more industries other than the aircraft industry, making them more affordable. Today builders use these materials because of their qualities: light weight, and good elasticity, both combined with good strength. Because the tube materials play such an important role in the way a bike reacts and feels it is important for a buyer to know what the bike frame is made from. It is also important to know the advantages and disadvantages of each of the materials. Steel

Since the mountain bike was invented, the frame manufacturers have used chrome-molybdenum-steel in various thicknesses to build high quality bikes. The two most used steel alloys are 25-CrMo4 and 34-CrMo4. For 25-CrMo4, the 25 means that it contains 25% carbon (carbon makes steel tension-resistant, and serves as a protection against deformation); CrMo4 indicates how much of the substances that improve the quality of the steel (chrome and molydenum) have been added. Manganese-molydenum is another alloy that may also be added. All of these alloys reach very good anti-breakage strength. High-quality steel tubes have seamless joints, and their ends have been reinforced or “butted”. The strength of the walls of high-quality CrMo tubes have been tripled. Butted tubes are strongest at the point where two tubes are joined, and are weakest in the middle of the tube.

The advantages of steel tubes are that it is a relatively inexpensive metal. The soldering the tubes produces strong, stable connections. Steel also tolerates a great deal of stress before it starts to break down.

There are two disadvantages of using a steel frame: it’s weight and it’s susceptibility to corrosion.

The fight against rust is endless; also, a search for a material that is light is still an ongoing process.

Despite these shortcomings steel remains the most reliable material for the frame industry.

Aluminum

The use of aluminum to make bike frames has increased rapidly in recent years. In order to make aluminum useful for mountain bike frames, an alloy had to be produced. Copper, magnesium, zinc,manganese, silicon, and titanium were each added; all of them increased the strength of aluminum.

Aluminum has a very high resistance to breakage. However, the maximum load capacity (the amount of pressure tolerated by a material before it becomes permanently distorted) of aluminum is not as high as that of CrMo steel. Because of this the strength of aluminum can be increased by widening the diameter of the wall of the aluminum tube.

The disadvantages of aluminum is that the price for high-quality aluminum is as high as the price for steel, but depending on the method used to connect the tubes, aluminum frames require more time to make, which in turn means that it costs more to the buyer. The tubes are either glued or screwed together with expensive sleeves, or they’re welded together. Both methods are expensive and time consuming.

Although aluminum tubing has only one-third of the rigidity of steel, when the diameter of aluminum tubes is doubled, the amount of rigidity is not simply twice but eight times higher. Another disadvantage of aluminum is its torsion strength. To improve the torsion strength of the aluminum the thickness of the wall was increased, this however, defeats aluminum’s weight advantage.

The advantages that aluminum tubing for bike frames are, that aluminum alloys are rust-free, they absorb shocks five times better than steel, and they’re light. Because the aluminum absorbs shock better than steel, the result is a more comfortable ride. Because of these reasons, the aluminum tubed bike frame is being used more and more frequently in the industry. Titanium

This material is used most often in fighter planes, but it is now being used for mountain bike frames. Because of its superior strength vs. its weight, the finished frame is very light and very strong. In the past titanium turned brittle after time, resulting in small cracks when under heavy loads. The adjustment in the combinations of the metals that were used it the alloys, titanium is now stronger than steel. The problem with this frame material was its price and its complicated manufacturing process, but the alloy and production problems were solved, and, together with a new welding technique, the production of titanium frames has become much easier.

The high price of titanium is titanium’s greatest disadvantage. Titanium is three times as expensive as CrMo steel. The welding method that weakens steel and aluminum has almost no effect on titanium. In the past it was necessary to do the welding in a vacuum chamber to protect the material against oxygen. A good titanium alloy has approximately the same strength as steel, but it achieves only 60% of steel’s rigidity.

This problem is also solved by increasing the diameter of the tube. A high torsion strength is titanium’s greatest advantage, a problem that was solved by making the walls of the tube thicker. Also, titanium is rust-free and is 40% lighter than steel. Carbon-Fibre

The future of mountain bike frames is in fibre and resin. The superiority of carbon tubes over steel, aluminum, and titanium is no longer a secret to mountain bike riders. This material provides great riding comfort, increased rigidity, and amazing shock absorption. Two types of tube stand out: round tubes that are glued together with aluminum sleeves and one-piece Monocoque frames. Besides carbon fibre, manufacturers are also using glass fibre, graphite fibre, Kevlar, and Spectra. It is important in the manufacturing process that a correct, multi-directional arrangement of the fibres is made to increase the torsion stress. Poorly made carbon-fibre tubes will fracture when exposed to heavy loads.

There are only two small disadvantages a carbon-fibre frame has. One is that it costs about four or five times more than a steel frame, and the other is that Monocoque frames have a very limited number of sizes. Other than those a lot better. Carbon-fibre frames are three times stronger than steel frames, and have 35% more rigidity. They are also well protected from corrosion. Carbon tubes

are 20% lighter than steel tubes; the sleeves used for joining the tubes add some weight, however, carbon frames are still 60%lighter than steel frames. Their excellent ability to absorb shocks (the energy flow of the shocks is diffused

by traveling from fibre to fibre) doesn’t diminish the frame’s rigidity. Carbon-fibre is considered to be the ultimate material for frame tubes. Suspension

In recent years the trend for mountain bikes is to be equipped with a suspension system.

However, it will take some time before all the problems with suspension are worked out. The high demand for some kind of suspension is because of the heavy load that the mountain bike’s material must bear. Until now, the solution was to increase the rigidity of the frame, but strengthening the material compromised comfort. The solution on today’s mountain bikes is by adding suspension to the wheels. Suspension was first used on racing bikes, but because of the harsh conditions a mountain bike goes through, it was only a matter of time before a suspension system was added to the mountain bike.

Front Shock Absorbers

The front shock was the creation of Paul Turner, who engineered the “Rock Shox”. This type of suspension is similar to the suspension used for motocross forks. This suspension consists of an aluminum fork crown with two telescoping blades that slide into each other when under pressure. The blades are either made from aluminum or steel. The distance of the spring action is about 21/8″ (5.5 cm). The degree of tension can be adjusted. There are two ways to absorb shocks: oil-pressure or air-pressure suspension, or with springs and oil. Plastic parts can also give good results.

Bikes that are equipped with front-wheel shock absorbers don’t lose contact with the ground, which allows for more control, and thereby making driving at higher speeds possible. However, this advantage only comes into play when riding at high speed, and when the shocks occur in quick succession.

Suspension prevents shocks from reaching the tire, and thereby prevents damage to the rim; rims aren’t as easily deformed. The greatest disadvantage is the change in the geometry of the bike. The steering-tube angle gets smaller, anywhere from 2° to 2.5°; the trail gets larger, which changes the handling of the bike from characteristically quick to a “sluggish” steering reaction. Add to this the additional weight of the shock absorber. A fork with a shock is around 171/4 oz. to 21/4 lbs (500 to 1000 g) more than a Unicrown or switchblade fork.

Suspension forks are particularly useful for a biker who doesn’t or can’t avoid obstacles and when riding at high speeds is the goal of the rider, like in racing competition, and especially in downhill races. For the average biker the suspension system won’t become useful until the system has been improved to:

1.Minimize geometrical changes;

2. Design the suspension in such a way that it can be turned on or off as circumstances require;

3. Reduce weight. Rear-Wheel Suspension

After the front-wheel suspension systems gained acceptance, it was only a matter of time before engineers designed a suspension system for the rear-wheel. This was considered to be an ambitious undertaking, because it meant jeopardizing the stability of the rear frame, a vital part of the frame structure.

At the end of 1990, Cannondale, Offroad, and Gary Fisher introduced the first rear-wheel suspension.

Cannondale and Offroad used similar systems. They both have elevated chain stays providing lateral sway, with the pivot point located in the front of the seat tube. Cannondale uses an oil-pressure suspension, the Offroad rear frame is protected against shocks by plastic devices. These suspension systems are well made and designed, but they also contribute to some problems: Stiff wishbone construction at the rear frame lessens lateral stability; interference with the important geometry of the rear frame by adding shock absorbers will also cause considerable loss to the bike’s lateral stability, changing the ride of the bike. Gary Fisher installed plastic devices to absorb shocks. They’re located behind the bottom bracket. Chain tension, however, makes the rear frame more rigid (due to the lowered seat-stay position); traction is not affected.

Rear-wheel suspension is great for riding downhill, because potholes are smoothed out, and tires are protected from severe punishment. However, uphill riding can be an ordeal when the rear of the frame bounces with every pedal stroke. This can drain the energy from the rider quite rapidly. A bike equipped with rear-suspension is also heavier. At this time no satisfactory solution has been found; the many different versions are all still in the experimental stages. This technology is still recent and still has room for improvement. A rear-wheel suspension that is standard to most bikes has not yet been found.

Gears

Shifting and drivetrain have undergone enormous evolutions. Today four different methods of shifting gears are available: single shift, double shift, rotation-grip, and grip shift. All four of the systems are different. The one thing that they all have in common is that they are all indexed. The functions of the front and rear derailleurs have reached high standards, technologically and functionally. In combination with numerous gear positions this is (at this time) the most perfect gear shifting system. The only disadvantage is that it needs frequent attention and adjustment.

To shift gears smoothly and silently before the invention of the indexed system was truly difficult.

It was a process of slow learning, and only professionals knew how to do it properly. The indexed system, however, made it possible for even a novice rider to master the art of shifting gears properly and with ease.

The indexed system has a built-in mechanism that enables the derailleur to move in such a way that the chain rests securely on the chain ring as well as on the sprockets.

Single Shifter

Today, as in the past, the single shifter is the one that most bikers prefer. It is close to the handgrip, and top mounted, this one is the lightest (51/4 oz or 150 g) and reaches every sprocket within a turn of 90°. This system also makes it possible to disengage the indexed system, so that in case of difficulties, the gears and derailleur can be used manually, using the friction system. The only disadvantage is that the position of the lever isn’t ergonomically perfect. The thumb has to move up above the handlebars each time the gears have to be shifted. However, the single shifter system is preferred for all racing bikes.

Double Shifter

For ergonomic reasons, a few of the professional mountain bike racers, moved the shifter below the handlebars. The lever worked well of the biker pushed the lever away from himself. It was pulling it back that was the problem. To solve this problem the double shifter was introduced in 1989. The shifter was split into two separate levers. The lower lever moved the chain to a larger sprocket and the upper lever moved the chain to a smaller sprocket. The whole procedure became more complicated; instead of one movement in two directions, using one lever; now two movements, using two levers in two directions was necessary. To shift gears it was necessary, even for trained bikers, to learn the whole new procedure.

despite the improved position of the shifter the double shifter system has a disadvantage; although by using the lower lever the largest sprocket or chain ring can be reached, to shift to a smaller sprocket (to the right), it’s necessary to push the lever six or seven times, causing a slight slowdown. Although it is a minor inconvenience for the recreational biker, it is a concern for mountain bike racers. Rotation-Grip Shifter

Handle bars with a diameter of 7/8″ (22.2 and 22.7 mm) are equipped with a 61/4″ (16 cm) long rotation grip with two or three mechanisms inside. The springs, activated by pressure, cause a mechanism either to tighten or to loosen the gear cable. In order to shift to another gear, the grip must be rotated. A dial lets the rider know on which sprocket the chain is riding on. Every sprocket can be reached within a 90° turn of the shifter. Later a lever inside the rotation grip was made that prevents the gears from jumping when riding in rough terrain. Despite the perfect ergonomical placement of the shifter, it does have two disadvantages; the increasing number of handlebar accessories leaves little room for mounting new ones, and accidental shifting can’t be totally eliminated.

Grip Shift

The “Grip Shift” is a system that can be mounted at several different places on the handlebars. A

21/8″ (5.5 cm) wide by 13/4″ thick rotation ring can be mounted on either the inside or outside of the grip and used on any handlebars that have a 7/8″ diameter (22,2 and 22.6). This system has an intricate system consisting of three ring-cups that turn within each other that tightens and loosens the gear cable by pulling it across a wedge. The only disadvantages is that a 270° turning radius is needed to reach all the sprocket.

The greatest advantage is its light weight. At only 2 oz (66 g) the “Grip Shift” is even lighter than the single shifter. Other handlebar accessories may also be added if desired. Front Derailleur

The front derailleur transports the chain rings. This is done by a chain guide, which can be moved from side to side by a cable, and is moved back with a retracting spring. Indexed systems also function with the derailleur, but still need further refinement. All too often the chain rubs against the cage and must be adjusted at the shifter. While it is quite easy at the shifter, it’s much more complicated with the rotation- grip shifter. Adjustments don’t last, and frequent attention is necessary. This is a main complaint about the rotation-grip shifter. Rear Derailleur

In order to accommodate the wide arrangement of the gears, the mountain bike’s chain housing has to be much longer than that of a road bike. The chain housing has to accommodate the largest sprocket.

The most popular type of mechanism is the “slant” mechanism, almost all rear derailleurs are built according to this model. With the slant mechanism, a much better functioning shifting system has evolved because the guide pulley “wanders” back and forth at the same distance over every sprocket. Brakes

Brakes are the only components that haven’t significantly changed in the evolution of the mountain bike. Today, the simple cantilever brake system has proven the most reliable for off-road riding. The future, however, belongs to disc brakes, which at this time, are still going through a trial and error period.

The concept of the disc brake is of interest for mountain bikers, because mountain biking makes such great demands on the brakes. These demands are best served by disc brakes for three reasons: First, the amount of space that disc brakes allow for the fat tires, so that mud accumulation won’t create problems; second, the brakes should weigh as little as possible; and third, they must function under both wet and dry conditions. But first we have to learn the basic, and still the most common type of brake system.

Cantilever Brakes

The best system is also a simple one, and one that works. The cantilever brake is a perfect example. Two moveable brake arms with brake shoes are mounted on bosses that are soldered to the seat stays, or to the chain stays. On many models both brake arms are connected by cables. At the end of the cable, which originates at the brake lever on the handlebars, are cable carriers to which a linking wire is attached. The link cable can be disconnected either at the left or right brake carriers. This release the tension and allows the rear of front wheel to be removed. On newer models the brake cable, which comes from the brake lever, is attached directly to one of the brake arms, and guided by a round cable carrier, connected to the other brake arm.

On traditional cantilever brakes, brake arms extend rather far to the outside for the best possible leverage. Sometimes this causes the rider’s feet to come in contact with the brake arms. This problem was solved by “Low Profile” brakes. Brake arms became longer, but the angles became much tighter. The

Pedersen cantilever brake makes use of the direction of the rim rotation to give more power to the brake shoes. The brake shoes are pulled in the direction of the wheel’s forward movement, creating a correspondingly higher brake action. When releasing the brake shoes, a spring action pulls them back into the neutral position, which results in an energy saving of 20%. Brake Shoes

Most brake shoes are made from a hard, friction-resistant, special material consisting of vulcanized rubberlike plastic, which has been constantly been improved over the years. New combinations made from synthetic rubber and pheol ressin have increased deceleration, but overall they lose an enormous amount of effectiveness when the rims are wet. Effectiveness when the rims are wet is the big disadvantage of all rim brakes.

Since the rim becomes part of the brakes in cable-carrying systems, the effectiveness of the brakes very much depends on the surface condition of the rim. The most recent rims have a layer ceramic on the outside which have improved the effectiveness of the brakes under all weather conditions.

Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brakes operate by an enclosed oil tube made from polyamide. Pressure applied to the brake lever is transferred to a cylinder and the brake shoes. In spite of many advantages, these brakes are being used less and less, even though the last disadvantage has been eliminated. The disadvantage was that in order to remove the wheels, you would have to let the air out of the tires. This was solved by designing a brake so that the brake arms could be opened up so that the wheel could be taken off without letting the air out.

Disc Brakes

Despite the good track record of the cantilever brake, the search for an effective disc-brake system has started. A new bike company in California, Mountain Cycles, introduced a hydraulic “Pro Stop” disc- brake system in 1990. Aluminum discs (located at the hub of the wheel) have brake shoes made from a low-temperature fibre material. These brake shoes grip the disc in a “pinching” fashion. The brake shoes, together with the aluminum disc, don’t lose power under wet conditions. Power from hand pressure is perfectly transferred to the brake shoes. These disc brakes were developed in conjunction with a front-wheel suspension system. Their weight including fork is 53/4 lbs (2.6 kg). This system can also be mounted on conventional Unicrown forks. Brake Levers

The brake lever has been used ever since the mountain bike was invented. It has gone through improvement over the years in ergonomics, size, weight, and the way it performs. The lever pulls a brake cable, which transfers the pulling action of the brake arm of the cantilever to the brake shoe. The lever was shortened after it was discovered that it can be operated with only two fingers. There is also a brake lever with a roller mechanism, called the “Servo Wave”. When this lever is used, the pivot point changes the relation to the cable carrier, which causes the brake shoes to come closer to the rim. The closer the brake shoes get to the rim, the more effective the transfer of power from the lever to the brake shoes. All accomplished with a minimum amount of pressure applied to the brake lever at the handle bars.

Advancement of DNA in the Future (uses)

Presented by

Institution

History/background of DNA research

Gregor Mendel was the first scientist to do genetic research in 1857 where he conducted research with plants. He grew many pea plants for the duration of eight years, but unfortunately he died before completing his research. Later Friedrich Miescher and Altmann Richard discovered Nuclein in 1869. Miescher isolated a pure sample of DNA from salmon’s sperm, which was named nucleic acid in 1889 by Altmann. Interestingly, Fredrick Griffith discovered the basis of DNA as the molecule of inheritance. HUMAN Genome Initiative started in 1988 and continued to date. DNA consists of three elements, four components Adenine (A), Cytosine (C0, Guanine (G), and Thymine (T), sugar and phosphate (1).

Why DNA research is considered to be medical milestone

The research in DNA consists of a series of written commentaries and articles highlighting the most significant discoveries made by scientists since 1857. Future scientists will be more advanced in researching in DNA because they will use past articles to fill gaps left by previous scientists. In addition, DNA research is considered a milestone because in future advancements are likely to come up with more used of DNA other than the traditionally known uses.

Effects of DNA research on current practice

The current known uses of DNA do not meet the demands of the practice of medicine calling for more future advancements in the subject. Future Advancements in DNA research enlightens medical practitioners more on the human genetic formulation and other beneficial uses of DNA other than the currently known in today. Current practice of medicine faces many challenges because most facilities use the traditionally known uses of DNA test. Future advancement in technology will offers better chances for medical practitioners to conduct efficient and timely practices and achieve desirable results. Currently, researchers have not identified any specific impact of the genetic and genomic testing sector (2).

Implications and advancement in the future

Current scientists have not yet discovered the whole concept of DNA. Most people criticize the presence of nucleic genes and their role in life development of humans, animals and plants. According to (3), advancement in research of DNA continues to revolutionalize the sectors of medicine, forensic, paternity, agriculture and many others that have a positive impact on the society. Advancement of DNA in the future is likely to be used for testing cardiac catheterization response among patients. Additionally, future researchers will use DNA information as part of informed consent for participants in clinical trials. The process will prevent replication of participants and ensure only those people liable for a research take place in data collection (4).

References

Mandal A. History of DNA research. November 17, 2014. (Cited November 17, 2014).

Available from http://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-DNA-Research.aspx

Tripp S. Grueber M. and Cummings D. The economic and functional impacts of Genetic and Genomic clinical laboratory Testing in United States. Battele Technology Partnership Practice. 2012. (Cited November 17, 2014). Available from http://www.labresultsforlife.org/news/Battelle_Impact_Report.pdf

Murnaghan I. The Importance of DNA. Updated July 23, 2014. (Cited November 17, 2014).

Available from http://www.exploredna.co.uk/the-importance-dna.html

Lewis L. Is future-use DNA sampling ethical? July 12, 2014. (Accessed November 17,

2014). Available from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/07/13/is-future-use-dna-sampling-ethical/

Challenges for Facilitators in Group Process

(Author’s name)

(Institutional Affiliation)

Introduction

Power can be defined as the comparative ability of different individuals to pressure each other; and it has an essential role in advocacy. Aiding professionals usually work for the disadvantaged in the community and for them to advance their apprehensions; the activity of helping these professionals requires one to know how to influence the balance of power that exists between groups and individuals involved in a conflict. Professionals conversant with the structural theories and systems can make use of these theories to aid their power analysis and analysis of influences that individuals impose on others. This paper analysis these means of analyzing power based on ten power sources, which include associations, expertise, resources possession, procedure control, sanctions, legitimacy, nuisance, habit, personal attributes and morality. The paper will specifically put its focus on two of these powers; resource power and moral power. In specific terms, these powers are; expert power, associational power, resource power, procedural power, legitimate power, sanction power, nuisance power, habitual power, moral power, and personal power.

Resource Power

Resource power is the kind of power that results from control of assets that are valuable such as materials, money, or any other services and goods. The inverse version of this power is when an individual has the ability to live without these needed resources or make others do without them. Generally, this kind of power is useful in solving conflicts through the exchange of goods or resources or through refusing to exchange these resources. In many cases, clients are usually at a disadvantage when they rely on resource power. However, if a conflict occurs at a social agency then it is usually at an advantageous situation since it has the ability to access more resources in terms of professionals and money. Advocates can be of help to clients if they guide them on ways of securing assets from, for example, sources like social assistance benefits funds for legal aids among others. Additionally, professionals such as lawyers, educators, and other professionals might be of help if they offer to donate their time to the clients.

Another way clients can be helped to solve conflicts is to avail technology or enhance their access to technology. In most cases, it is people with money who have more access to technology than other individuals. Advocates, for example, can achieve this by promoting a better access to equipment and education in libraries, schools and other institutions. Advocates can also campaign for and promote higher levels of literacy. Advocates can also enhance advocate power by promoting or assisting with alternate exchange of resources. Some individuals might not have money for exchange but might have other resources. Advocates can make it possible for clients to exchange goods they have for those they do not have and need.

Moral Power

This is another form of power that results from appeals to values that are widely held like charity, family, privacy, freedom, democracy and fairness. Advocates can finesse this kind of power by using language that puts their cause in a better, positive light. Moral power forces individuals to make decisions on the bases of interests and values other than positions. However, positional bargaining usually results with each individual claiming for moral superiority. Based on this kind of power, advocates can help clients solve conflicts by helping them focus on values that are common. Putting the values of another in a bad light is unethical and goes against respect for diverse groups and individuals. Victim mentality is one way most people plead so as to gain support and sympathy. However, this technique can be damaging ultimately. This is because when people consider themselves victims, they never take any responsibility for bettering themselves. They become depended on mistrust and fear, and they are unable to recognize constructive CR techniques. These people might need the help of advocates who can do so by validating their fears, but at the same time help them gain more self- efficacy and confidence. By helping clients achieve these goals, the advocate helps victims take responsibility of their lives and better themselves by moving on with their lives. Advocates can also help such victims gain moral power by giving them support and encouragement to act in moral ways, like solving issues in ways that are non- violent.

Conclusion

These powers can be extremely beneficial in helping individuals solve conflicts morally and with resources that they can afford. Utilizing these powers can be an extremely helpful way of solving conflicts.

Reference

Barsky, A. E. (2007). Conflict resolution for the helping professions (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. 

Advancement of Technology and Change of Attitude among the Elderly – Due 28/04/2022

The advancement of medical technology has contributed a great deal to improving the lives of the elderly, and this has resulted in longer life and good health during the final years of life. With the quality of life has changed for to better, attitudes towards aging have changed, with people developing a new mindset that aging is not associated with dependency. Current technology has the capability of enabling mobility in a person if they are unable to walk. I expect that there will be numerous changes in attitude toward and treatment of the elderly between now and the time when I am 80 years old, and this change of attitude will be based on the faith that advanced technology has provided in improving the quality of life.

The rise of technology will benefit healthy ageing and longevity, enabling people to live a healthier life that is more fulfilling at all ages (Calder et al., 2018). For example, technological innovations have been used to keep the elderly physically active and enable independent living, such as detecting falls, thus helping the elderly to avoid unnecessary injuries. Old people are unable to navigate their way, which makes them susceptible to trips and falls, which may increase the number of deaths in the elderly population. With advanced technology to help in navigation, the elderly will have an opportunity to extend their life expectancy by avoiding deadly falls. Besides, advancements in technology, especially the introduction of smart home technology, which involves the automation of homes, providing homeowners, especially the elderly, with security, comfort, convenience and energy efficiency by allowing them to control smart devices, often by a smart home app on their smartphone or other networked devices (Li et al., 2021). Smart homes will provide the elderly with an opportunity to live a decent life, and this will reduce the chances of the elderly being sent to ageing homes, which are mostly considered dumps for old people. Based on this, smart homes will give the elderly a changed perspective about getting old, knowing that they won’t be sent to aging homes and forgotten by their families.

Advancements in technology will also provide opportunities for people to connect with their loved ones (Roblek et al., 2018). Strong social connections have been found to be fundamental to physical and mental well-being. Previously, the elderly used to smoke cigarettes to kill boredom, which is not a healthy behavior since it can accelerate the chances of getting lung cancer and even dying prematurely. People are supposed to enjoy old age as it is the time for them to relax and enjoy their lifetime benefits. Technological advancements have helped make this dream possible as people have adopted a better choice of living, including adopting healthy behaviors such as using social media to connect with people. For example, older people can connect with their families and other elderly people online, and this can help change the attitudes toward ageing. According to data, the adoption and use of technology have increased tremendously, with 44% of people aged 50 and older being more comfortable with technology than before the covid-19 pandemic (Kong et al., 2021). This positive behavior is expected to continue, increasing socialization and interaction of the elderly, and this will help improve the mental well-being of the elderly.

References

Calder, P. C., Carding, S. R., Christopher, G., Kuh, D., Langley‐Evans, S. C., & McNulty, H. (2018). A holistic approach to healthy ageing: how can people live longer, healthier lives?. Journal of human nutrition and dietetics, 31(4), 439-450.

Kong, S. S., Otalora Rojas, L. A., Ashour, A., Robinson, M., Hosterman, T., & Bhanusali, N. (2021). Ability and willingness to utilize telemedicine among rheumatology patients—a cross-sectional survey. Clinical Rheumatology, 40(12), 5087-5093.

Li, W., Yigitcanlar, T., Erol, I., & Liu, A. (2021). Motivations, barriers and risks of smart home adoption: From systematic literature review to conceptual framework. Energy Research & Social Science, 80, 102211.

Roblek, V., Mesko, M., Dimovski, V., & Peterlin, J. (2018). Smart technologies as social innovation and complex social issues of the Z generation. Kybernetes.

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Argument: Mountains beyond Mountains

Mountains beyond mountains is a book that talks about farmer, the beginner of Partnership in Health, which is an institution that battles poverty and diseases among the world’s sickest and poorest in nations such as Rwanda, Peru, and Haiti. The book is very education, engaging and inspiring as it tries to bring out the quest for Farmer to treat patients, improve their living standards and battle for world health equivalence.

Farmer’s work with his organization Partnership In Health showcases that human beings are congenitally good; he is selfless. The author of the book, Tracy Kidder highlights that it was never Paul’s intention to adjust to the founded norms of the society of whom a doctor should heal. While working in Boston, Farmer managed to stand out of his peers. The author of the book witnessed his treatment of a homeless alcoholic with pneumonia and HIV/AIDS. As Tracy puts, Paul never made his aid public. He not only succeeded in treating the patient, but also made sure that he had a place to call home to avoid often falling heal. Further proof of Farmer’s saintliness is highlighted in stories such as his tenacity to handle Father Jack, a person who suffered from drug-immune tuberculosis. Even after, Jack’s death, he furthered his research on the cause of the disease, which eventually leads to his cure of the disease. He serves as an epitome of selfless human beings.

Mountains in this book can signify hardships that arise in life. Therefore, mountains beyond mountains imply that once a person solves an issue, another bigger issue manifests; the hardships of the globe will never end. However, this does not imply that all good acts are useless. From Farmers experiences, one can term his benevolence as a long defeat but not futility. The first mountains of farmer while in Haiti were poor patients with curable and incurable diseases; Aids, ulcers, malaria. He worked on those cases individually and quickly went on to tackle larger and larger mountains; drug-immune tuberculosis. His beliefs on change around the world were very optimistic and went on to establish an institution helping the downtrodden. Therefore, to tackle mountainous problem of inability among the poor to access treatment, leaders must emerge and stand their ground.

Although Farmer never provided best qualities to found himself as a pioneer in anthropology, such big characterization could have happened in the absence of Tracy’s descriptive and simplistic style of writing. Paul knew he could not shape what Tracy would write in his biography and portrayed this by saying that he did had not done much for Tracy to write citing misgivings given by people about his quest. Such a statement shows that he cared less about people’s comments as long as he treaded his path.

As the author accompanies Paul’s travels across the globe, one feels some sense of respect or both the narrator and the doctor, through their dialogues and interactions. Farmer tries to give the most engaging anecdotes of Paul, such as Farmer’s unfortunate experiences. Many exchanges between the two, especially when Tracy says that there was no couch potatoes in the family bring some degree of personalization to the book. Kidder depicts Farmer as a lover of science and medicine as well as interest in patients. When Paul realized that some of his patients had developed a number of drug resistance tuberculosis after improper treatment, he developed a bad taste about his triumph. Like any other real scientist, he is excited by his discoveries, but his excitement is overwhelmed by the discovery that it was unhelpful to his patients.

Instead of just giving stories to show the character of the doctor, the narrator gives extra clue on his actions and decisions. Such a profound analysis of Farmer’s traits provides thee book readers with a cornerstone to draw more conclusions. Placing Paul’s actual words with Tracy’s conclusions established a logical flow of thought. For instance, the doctor says that he had never known the meaning despair and thought he would never will. The narrator follows these words with his though saying that it seemed that in Farmer’s bid to cure suffering among the poor, he was becoming more immune to such issues. This form of writing allows the book to expose duality in genre; it is both a social commentary and a biography.

By using many statements to describe farmer, the narrator builds on his theses that it is not useless to battle a long win and that equivalence in medical treatment is indispensable towards eliminating poverty. Little in the book is fictional as the narrator places both the doctor’s suitable and unsuitable characteristics and does not indicate some level of bias in his character. In fact, the bias that only exists in his book is Paul’s contempt for class bias and the effect it had on the treatment of the poor. Since the narrator does not attacks a specific individual, policy, group of persons or those in authority, it is not possible to paint an image of controversy when speaking about mountains beyond mountains.

The book deserves a lot of respect for Dr. Farmer from its readers. In fact, someone recommended me to read it before I searched for it and sat down to read it. The motivation with which the recommender gave for the book included his change of mind. After the medical school, the book had inspired him to pursue a major in anthropology. This decision astonished me and went ahead to look for and read the book. Reading the book gives someone the chance to compare and contrast medicine and anthropology. The two disciplines enhance each other leading to medical ethnography, a discipline toured by Farmer. The information gotten form this book expands a person’s knowledge of humanities and natural science studies.

The book evokes the notion that in order to preserve humanity, people must start with its populace. Moreover, everyone on this planet is titled to favorable medical care, irrespective of the handiness of a person’s or a nation’s monetary resources. Therefore, people should work together in groups or as individuals towards preserving humanity.

In a conclusion, the book has explored the life of Farmer, a medical ethnographer, who contributed a lot to the lives of the poor in Haiti, Peru, and other parts of the world. The book has highlighted that in order to save this world from the normal beliefs and customs that let us down, leaders must arise and fight for a world that there is equality in treatment notwithstanding financial setbacks. Briefly, the book is very educative, engaging, and above all inspiring.

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Challenges Prosecutor’s Face When Implementing New Reforms

Introduction

In criminal justice, a prosecutor is an attorney representing the state or government responsible for trying and charging law offenders. They are powerful actors in the corridors of criminal justice. For many years, prosecutors have been labeled supervisors of safety and administrators of justice. Prosecutors’ discretionary powers range from deciding the charges to purse, the witnesses who will be interviewed, bail recommendation, to the kind of sentences to recommend. Additionally, prosecutors are also in charge of the process of plea bargaining which resolves about 95% of criminal cases. There are 2,300 prosecutors’ offices in the United States that house the custodians of the criminal justice system. Over the years, prosecutors continue to face various challenges in their mandate of implementing new reforms. The purpose of this essay is to assess the challenges that prosecutors face in their line of work including struggles with accountability issues, data organization, admissibility of digital information, and staff retention

Staffing and Resources

First, hiring staff members that are qualified can limit the ability of a prosecutor’s office to implement reforms. This is the case especially when there are limited resources to support the prosecutor’s work. Retaining staff requires not only hiring the right people but also identifying their skills and training them to support their advancement (Arnell, and Laura 89). Further, it requires developing incentives to caution workers from searching for better opportunities elsewhere. In essence, it requires offering them attractive and completive remuneration packages. There is a lot of competition from the private sector and other agencies hence the need for prosecutors to be creative in compensating and awarding staff performance as well as to give employees opportunities to develop themselves. Worth noting, prosecutors have the responsibility of educating new attorneys and law students concerning the role of prosecutors in boosting recruitment efforts in the community. There is a perception that the only role of the prosecutor is convicting offenders and ensuring they stay in prison for as long as possible which is not true. As such, young advocates and law students should be exposed to the work and impact of prosecutors through clinics, presentations, courses, and externships. While these practices are well reputable in the field of criminal defense, they can also be used as a model for the prosecution field. In so doing, they will be preparing them for their future roles as they will serve as members of staff in the prosecution offices of in the criminal justice field in general.

Admissibility of Digital Information

Second, prosecutors face the challenge of the diversity of data available for prosecution functions and in particular digital information. This is owing to the emerging trends and advancements in technology. Technology has made it possible for the collection of evidence such as body-worn cameras and social media content (Green, 589). However, this presents a question of its admissibility and authenticity of such evidence in a court of law. This kind of evidence is different from the physical evidence and much is at stake because it can easily be doctored. Additionally, as regards digital information, there is also the challenge of how to store and manage it particularly when the case is ongoing and during case disposition. Although digital evidence is admissible, it can be disadvantageous because it is time-consuming and overwhelming to review. In some cases, the data can be in form of video footage that is hours long. As digital evidence continues advancing, prosecutors with reviewing it accessing funds to store the bulky data. Sometimes the amount of digital data that prosecutors should review can be managed through the use of data reduction and mining solutions, steep learning curves, and high costs are involved making it impossible for a prosecutor’s office to adopt the technologies. Additionally, in the cases of video evidence, prosecutors will be required to secure an appropriate location to redact this information because at times it can involve sensitive evidence such as sexual assault of identities of underage victims of sexual assault. The process can be labor and time-intensive.

The Challenge of Data Organization

Another issue that prosecutors have to contend with is how to manage and organize data. The cases that prosecutors deal with cover various complex issues. To properly manage this kind of data requires a data management system to make it easy to access and understand the various cases. Notably, understanding cases goes beyond looking at conviction rates. A prosecution that is intelligence-led employs predictive analytics among other analysis techniques as they have the potential of attaining, fairer, more sensible and more efficient criminal justice outcomes. Worth noting, technology advancement has raised a question of the availability of large data and ethical concerns including raising legal concerns over the right to privacy of the witness and defendant. Additionally, a prosecutor can be impacted by the ability to give complete and accurate data in the cases posing a financial effect. There is a need to provide quality and transparent data not only in the criminal justice spectra but also across agencies and to members of the public. There is also a need for uniformity to a great extent.

Accountability Issues

In addition to constitutional requirements, prosecutors are held to high ethical standards that inform how they should approach and perform duties. These standards are important as they protect prosecutors through supporting their decisions and also holding them accountable for their mistakes. Historically, the district attorney was tasked with prosecutorial accountability to sanction them when they misbehave (Sarma, 573). The Supreme Court states that district attorneys and prosecutors are exempted from civil liability. Although the decision by the courts was impeding efforts of holding prosecutors to account in the past, the office of prosecutor has recently managed to implement wrongful convictions. Moreover, prosecutors stand the risk of overseeing wrongful convictions which tends to raise questions about their integrity. Instituting conviction integrity units can go a long way in eliminating the risk of wrongful convictions occurring. Such units are instrumental in pointing out the common causes of wrongful convictions among them the discovery of exonerating DNA evidence and evidence which was mishandled. Additionally, with a well-functional and well-organized data management system, organizations’ operations are set to improve which makes it easier to share information and hold employees accountable for integrity issues.

Conclusion

Prosecutors are deemed administers of justice and supervisors of safety. Their powers range from deciding the charges to purse, the witnesses who will be interviewed, bail recommendation, to deciding the kind of sentences to recommend. In their attempt to implement reforms prosecutors go through challenges including accountability issues, data organization, admissibility of digital information, and staff retention.

Works Cited

Arnell, Paul, and Laura Sharp. “Challenges to prosecutorial discretion.” Scots Law Times 21 (2016).

Green, Bruce A. “Prosecutorial Discretion: The Difficulty and Necessity of Public Inquiry.” Dickinson L. Rev. 123 (2018): 589.

Sarma, Bidish. “Using Deterrence Theory to Promote Prosecutorial Accountability.” Lewis & Clark L. Rev. 21 (2017): 573.

MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION

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Introduction

The human skeletal system is made in such a way that it is adapted to its functions of support, locomotion, movement and attachment of muscles. It consists of numerous bones that are interconnected through the joints. For the purpose of joining the bones on the joints, the human skeletal system also consists of the ligaments, tendons and the cartilages. The arrangements and the different types of joints of the skeletal system are themselves adaptations for movement and locomotion (Human Kinetics 2013, P. 32). An example is the hip joint, which takes the form of a ball and socket joint. Similarly, the shape of the bones and the length of the bones are also adaptive features for enabling body locomotion and movement. The arrangement of the skeletal muscles is naturally done in such a way that it aids in movement and locomotion. The body muscles are of different types, shapes and sizes, a feature that serves to enhance the adaptations of the musculoskeletal system to movement and locomotion (Human Kinetics 2013, P. 33). The structure of the muscles too is an adaptation to locomotion and movement. The musculoskeletal system, therefore, performs its functions courtesy of the natural adaptations that it has. The paper examines the adaptations of the skeletal system in relation to its function, the arrangement of muscles, and the function of locomotion and movement. The paper will refer to the training of the world cup footballer by relating his training to the adaptations of the skeletal system.

5.1. How the Structure of the Skeleton is related to its Function

The human skeleton is classified into two subdivisions. The first subdivision is the axial skeleton that consists of the skull and much of the vertebral column. The second subdivision is the appendicular skeleton, which consists of the hip bone (pelvic girdle), the pectoral (shoulder) bone and the limbs (Rodgers, 2010). With the consideration of the body systems like the cardiovascular, digestive and the respiratory system, the skeleton is said of having three major functions. These are support, protection and motion. Motion includes movement and locomotion.

In terms of protection, the axial skeleton is characterized by hard bones that protect the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord and the brain are entirely located in the axial skeleton. Bones of the cranial vault are hard and with fixed joints, an adaptation that aids protection of the brain (Rodgers 2010). The vertebral column too consists of the vertebrae, which have a canal through which the spinal cord passes. The walls of the canal consist of hard bony material for protection. In the case of training a footballer, many exercises and movements are involved. The intactness of the cranial vault and the vertebral column ensures that the brain and the spinal cord remain undisturbed by the movements. Similarly, the many vertebral joints of the vertebral column ensure that flexibility of the body of the footballer during training. Since the footballer has to make many moves, and turn in different directions, the flexibility of the joints facilitates the moves (Rodgers 2010).

Posture and its maintenance is another feature of the adaptation of the skeleton. The shape of the skeleton and the joints, as well as, the ability to free the limbs is an adaptation to posture, locomotion and movement (Currey 2002). Considering the neck, for example, it is made up of many vertebral joints and the muscles that enable it to turn into the different directions. The footballer who is on training needs to turn into different directions to monitor the ball, and the locations of the other footballers. This is made possible by the arrangement of the vertebrae of the neck. Similarly, the shape of the vertebral column and the bones of the skeleton is an adaptation feature of the skeletal system (Currey 2002). The vertebral column has curves in the neck region, the thoracic region and also the lumbar (abdominal) region. The neck region has an inward curve, an outward curve for the thoracic region, and there is an inward curve for the lumbar region. Such curves allow for easy bending during movement, locomotion and posture. Considering the case of the training footballer, there are many movements involved, including bending and making body moves and turns. The curves of the vertebral column allows for such turns and bending in the flexion and extension movements, enabling the footballer to make swift moves and chase the ball.

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Figure 5.1.1: The human skeleton showing the curves of the vertebral column (Google)

The joints of the skeletal system are also an adaptation for the movement and locomotion. There are different types of joints in the skeletal system. Considering the different functions of the skeletal system, the different joints are adapted for the different functions. For example, the joints of the cranial vault are fixed and do not allow for movement (Currey 2002). This is an adaptation for protection of the delicate brain. The joints of the vertebral column also allows for very small movements, since they have to permit the bending, but at the same time, they have to protect the spinal cord (Rodgers 2010). In relation to the limbs and their movements, a special type of a joint, referred to as the ball and socket joints are involved. As an adaptive feature, the hip and the shoulder joints allows for free movement to an extent of 360 degrees (Currey 2002). The football trainee uses this feature in chasing the ball and kicking the ball from different angles. The extension of the limbs is also endowed with flexible joints for movement and locomotion. The knee and the elbow joints allow for extensive flexion and extension movements, which are necessary for the trainee, in terms of kicking the ball in different directions, and applying the needed force. In addition, the ankle joint is a major adaptation of the skeletal system for locomotion. The muscles that reinstate the joint allows for planter-flexion and dorsiflexion movements that are very useful in football training. They allow for kicking the ball upwards, as well as, in all directions. Finally, the muscles of the skeletal system are attached to the bones, and they are the ones responsible for making the different movements of the body.

Figure 5.1.2: Body Joints (Google)5.2. Arrangement of Skeletal muscles in the Human Body.

The skeletal muscle organization in the human body is, in a way, that allows for movement. Since the muscles are attached in the joints, there organization allows for a range of movement, power and movement of the joints they are associated. The muscle cells, referred to as fibres, are organized and arranged into bundles referred to as fascicles. The arrangement is such that the fibres run parallel to the fascicles. The four different patterns of organization of the fascicles are parallel, convergent, penname and circular (Malcntosh, Gardiner & McComas 2006).

The parallel or fusiform arrangement of the muscles is the most common with the skeletal muscles. Muscles arranged this way have the central part being thick than the ends. The parallel muscles contract extensively, which is an important adaptive feature of the musculoskeletal system. An example is the Sartorius muscle, which is the longest muscle in the body. They contribute greatly to flexion and extension.

Figure 5. 2. 1: Muscle Fascicle Arrangement: Retrieved from “Human Kinetics” (n.d).

The penname muscle arrangement is further divided into three categories of the unipennate, bipinnate and the multipennate. They are feather-like, and they form angles with tendons. Although they contain more myofibrils than the parallel muscles, they do not allow as much movement as the parallel muscles. However, the pennate muscles have been found to develop more tension than the penname muscles (Rodgers 2010). In the case of training as a footballer, the parallel muscles will allow more movement, while the pennate muscles allows for tension needed while training. In football training, the trainee will require to move the lower limbs to kick the balls, a function of the parallel muscles while one needs to develop tension for balance and support.

Another arrangement of muscles comes in the form of circular muscles. The circular muscles compose of a concentric arrangement of muscle fascicles (Malcntosh, Gardiner & McComas 2006). They form the openings and closing of body openings. They are very useful for a training footballer. During the training, some of the openings of the footballer need to remain closed, while others like the mouth may be open to aid in respiration. The circular muscles like the orbicularis oris perform that function.

The arrangement of skeletal muscles is also in such a way that allows the muscles to function like levers. The attachments of the skeletal muscles on the skeleton is responsible for the production of motion. For example, the muscles attach on an end of a bone, and insert themselves at the beginning of another muscle, such that they surround the joint (Rodgers 2010). Such an arrangement facilitate protection of the delicate joints by the muscles, as well as, movement of the joint in various directions and angles. In the lever system arrangement, the bone functions as a structure that is moved by the muscles through the fulcrum, which is the joint. The lever system is of the joints has the three classes of levers. An example is the lever of the upper arm, with the biceps muscle that functions to move the elbow joint in a third class lever system.

Fig 5.2.2: The biceps muscle in a lever system. Its contraction causes flexion of the knee joint. (Diagram courtesy of Google)

5.3: Functions of the Skeletal System in Movement and Locomotion.

The skeletal and the muscular system, together combined as the musculoskeletal system are responsible for movement and locomotion in a human being (Malcntosh, Gardiner & McComas 2006). The footballer trainee, who is in focus in this paper applies much of the muscles and the bones in movement and locomotion in the field. In the lever system arrangement of muscles and bones, the bones act as rigid structures, while the muscles act as movers through the joint, as the fulcrum. The lever allows for various movements during the training sessions. The lever of the ankle, the hip and the knee joints are very necessary for kicking the ball, and the movements required for making sure the opponent does not pick the ball. The swift movements are also necessary for the stability of the trainee. On the other hand, the muscles of the upper limb help the trainee to run in the field while chasing the ball.

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Figure 5.3.1. (a) and (b): The musculoskeletal function of movement and locomotion. (Google)

The diagrams in the figure 5.3.1. (a and b) shows the skeletal and muscular systems in relation to the structure and the function of movement and locomotion. From the diagram, movement and locomotion are functions of the muscular and skeletal systems with the coordination of the nervous system. Since skeletal muscles function through a voluntary action, every muscle is innervated by a nerve (Currey 2002; Rodgers 2010). A command from the brain and/or spinal cord reaches the muscle fibre and an action is initiated. The movement comes about through flexion and extension. Figure (a) can figuratively represent a trainee footballer. From the diagram, as it happens with the trainee, the muscles relax and contract to enable movement. For example, as the trainee runs forward, the muscles relax and contract to pull and release the bones, in order to move from one step to another. Figure (b) shows the strong skeletal muscles of the body that are directly involved in movement through relaxation and contraction.

While running, the football trainee touches the ground through the toes. The toes carry the weight of the whole body. Such landing is supported by the muscles, which hold the weight of the body to prevent the trainee from a fall. From figure (a), one can appreciate the role of joints in movement. Taking, for example, the leg that is behind, the head of the femur has rotated about in the acetabulum to allow the thrust. The knee joint has flexed. In the front leg, the knee joint is extended while the hip is flexed. The movements of the upper limbs follow a similar pattern, as can be appreciated from the diagram.

Conclusion

In sum, movement and locomotion is a function of the musculoskeletal system. The coordination of movement and locomotion involves the joints, bones, muscles and the nervous system. The tendons and ligaments that join muscles to bones and bones to bones also aid movement. Arrangement of skeletal muscles is in such a way that it is an adaptive feature for the functions of movement and locomotion. The muscles contract and relax, to produce the movements of flexion and extension, which allow locomotion.

LETTER FROM MY GP:

6.2: Rheumatoid Arthritis and Sjogren Syndrome

The purpose of this letter is to inform you and any other concerned parties about the medical condition of the above named person, and how this disease affects the football career of the person. The named person has been diagnosed with three conditions, which in one way or another, affects the person’s participation in the football career. The first two, rheumatoid arthritis and Sjogren Syndrome are discussed here, while Asthma is discussed under 6. 2 below.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a condition that describes a condition of the inflammation of the joints and the surrounding tissues (Hochberg et al., 2008). The inflammation comes along due to primary and secondary defense mechanisms. Being an autoimmune disease, the real causes of rheumatoid arthritis is not known, although the genetic composition, infections and hormonal changes are risk factors associated with its development. These factors, as well as, some factors in the environment have been suspected to trigger the activation of the immune system, leading to an attack of healthy cells of the body (Hochberg et al., 2008). The disease majorly affects the joints of the limbs, rendering them weak due to uncontrolled inflammation. Sometimes, however, the inflammation effect can affect some other parts of the body such as the eyes or lungs. Regardless of the trigger substance for rheumatic arthritis, the body immune response reacts by activating lymphocytes and chemical messengers such as the cytokines and the interleukins, which are expressed in the areas inflamed.

Sjogren disease, on the other hand, is an autoimmune disease that leads to the destruction of salivary and tear glands (Sjogren’s Syndrome Foundation 2004, P. 29). A complication of the disease leads to an effect into the lungs and the kidneys. Just like rheumatoid arthritis, the disease is characterized by an effect on healthy body cells by the immune system. The disease thus leads to swollen glands, joint pain, fever and fatigue.

A footballer is adversely affected by the two diseases, rheumatoid and Sjogen’s disease. In the case presented here, the football trainee might have to terminate his career. The Sjogren disease affects the footballer’s eyes. The eyes and the mouth are always dry, compromising the footballer’s visual acuity (Sjogren’s Syndrome Foundation 2004). Considering the role of acute vision in football, the performance of the footballer is likely to deteriorate. The mouth of the footballer is also affected and remains dry. Swallowing becomes a big problem to the footballer. The saliva becomes thickly, accompanied by mouth sores and soreness. The client becomes fatigued. Considering that the footballer needs to do exercises for training and also to run in the field, one cannot perform to the expected standards when suffering from these conditions.

In the case of rheumatoid arthritis, the joints of the limbs, including the knee, ankle, wrist and the elbow joints are inflamed, weak and painful. Due to inflammation of the joints, the footballer may experience fatigue and general body weakness, even when not exercising (Hochberg et al., 2008). Since football training and playing involves movement and locomotion, in which the joints play a pivotal role, the career of the footballer is compromised. The painful, weak, inflamed joints prevent thorough exercises and compromises performance in the field. In addition, the footballer is likely to experience chest pain, called pleurisy, and also experience difficulty while breathing. Given the important role of the lungs (in the chest) in exercising, it is clear that the performance of the footballer drops tremendously.

6.2. Allergic Asthma

Allergy is a condition in which part of the immune system is to vigilant to react to some substances that are not as harmful to the body as pathogens (Clark & Clark 2010, p. 23). Such substances include pollen, dust and cat dander. Upon encountering such allergens, the body reacts by producing immunoglobulin E antibodies, which trigger the release of histaminic chemicals, leading to initiation of inflammation. Allergic asthma, therefore, is a condition in which a person is hypersensitive to the allergens upon which one is sensitized (Clark & Clark 2010, p. 24). In the case where these allergens get into the airways, the immune system reacts, causing bronchospasms (tightening of muscles), inflammation and collection of thick mucus. The reaction may be followed by coughing, shortness of breath, wheezing, tightening of the chest and rapid breathing.

Playing football may be difficult for a person suffering from allergic asthma. From the discussion, it is evident that the pathogenesis of asthma involves some mechanisms that lead to shortness of breath and tightening of the chest. Given that the air passages are affected, and the delivery of air to the lungs compromised, the oxygenation of the tissues is compromised (Johansson & Haahtela, 2004). The phenomenon is brought about as a result of inadequate air reaching the lungs. When body skeletal muscle tissues are undersupplied with oxygen, they cannot function to their maximum. The client can thus not perform to the expected standards in the career of football. In addition, the other symptoms that accompany asthma are disturbing to the client. For example, the client experiences coughing. Such a disturbance is likely to decrease the performance of the client while in the field.

Considering the effects that the three diseases have brought for this footballer, it is recommendable that he avoids tough exercises that may compromise body functioning, leading to serious complications. The combination of the effects of rheumatoid arthritis on the skeletal system, the Sjogren syndrome on the mucous membranes (eyes and mouth), and asthma on the respiratory system, it suffices to conclude that the client is medically impaired, and may not be in a position to perform to the expected standards in the football career. The damage to the joints caused by the rheumatic arthritis has greatly reduced the chances of the client to play football in the near future. I, therefore, advise that the client is not in a position to continue with the football career.

REFERENCES

Clark, M., & Clark, M. V. 2010. Asthma: A clinician’s guide. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.

Currey, J.D (2002).Bones: structure and mechanics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Hochberg, M.C., Suliman, A.J., Smollen, S.J., Weinblatt, E.M., & Weisman, H.M. 2008. Rheumatoid arthritis. Camden, London: Elsevier Health Sciences.

Johansson, S. G., & Haahtela, T. 2004. Prevention of allergy and allergic asthma. Berlin: Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers.

“Human Kinetics”. n. d. Muscle structure and function. Retrieved from http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/muscle-structure-and-function

Human Kinetics. 2013. Biophysical foundations of human movement. Stanningly, Leeds: Author.

Maclntosh, B.R., Gardner, F.P., & McComas, A.J. 2006. Skeletal muscle: form and function. Stanningley, Leeds: Human Kinetics.

Rodgers, K. 2010. Muscle and bone: structure, force, and motion. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group.

Sjogren’s syndrome Foundation .2004. The new Sjogren’s syndrome handbook. Oxford, OX: Oxford University Press.

Challenges Faced By Clinical Psychologists

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Challenges Faced By Clinical Psychologists

References

Cavanagh, M., & Lane, D. (2012). Coaching psychology coming of age: The challenges we face in the messy world of complexity. International Coaching Psychology Review, 7(1), 75-90.

Dickey, L. M., & Singh, A. A. (2017). Finding a trans‐affirmative provider: Challenges faced by trans and gender diverse psychologists and psychology trainees. Journal of clinical psychology, 73(8), 938-944.

Harvey, V. S., & Pearrow, M. (2010). Identifying challenges in supervising school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 47(6), 567-581.

Motorcycle Mechanics

Motorcycles are not only a source of entertainment; they can also be a source of transportation and income if someone wanted to make a career of them. Motorcycles are used in many aspects of life. Children, as well as adults, ride motorcycles on trails, open fields and on motocross tracks. They may race, jump or do stunts with the motorcycle. Groups, such as Harley Davidson owners, get together to ride for charity events. Because motorcycles are so cheap to ride, they are great source of transportation. A motorcycle can get 60 to 70 miles per gallon whereas a small Toyota Camry can get 18 to 23 miles per gallon. Industries such as farming, delivery, entertainment, aviation and even the military are known for their use of motorcycles within their operations. Due to the popularity of the motorcycle there has been an emergence of self-taught mechanics. Not all these mechanics can keep up with the new technologies and advancements. “The impact of new technology on the motorcycle industry has been dramatic” (Motorcycle 1). Electronic ignitions, fuel systems, drive trains, and turbocharged engines are just a few areas of advancement. Well-trained technicians are needed and sought after. Job opportunities are available for these well-trained technicians. The motorcycle industry has a lot to offer someone who is interested in a motorcycle mechanic career.

It is always a good idea to understand the history of a subject prior to getting into specifics. Motorcycles originally looked like glorified bikes. They had front and rear wheels that were the same size, with a pedal crank mechanism to turn the rear wheel. Gottlieb Daimler is credited with building the first motorcycle in 1885. It was constructed mostly of wood with iron wheels and was powered by a single-cylinder engine. Most of the early models were three and four-wheeled designs. The two-wheeler was introduced in 1892. “It used a 5-cylinder engine built as the hub of its rear wheel. The cylinders rotated with the wheel, and its crankshaft constituted the rear axle” (Tharp 1). It wasn’t until Hildebrand & Wolfnueller invented and patented a two-wheeler in 1894 that the two-wheeler became success. Still production and manufacturing was a slow process and motorcycles were not readily available for purchase. In 1885, the “French firm of DeDion-Buton built an engine that was to make the mass production and common use of the motorcycles possible” (Thorpe 2). The engine was small, light and a four-stroke. It had a battery and coil ignition instead of a hot tube. A lubrication system was invented to drip oil in metered doses. Soon the engine was copied and was used by Harley-Davidson in the United States. The first U.S. production began in 1892 in Waltham, Massachusetts. The motorcycle was called the Orient-Aster and contained the DeDion-Buton engine. Production continued at a slow pace until 1960. Between 1960 and 1970 over five million motorcycles were produced and sold. During the 1970’s oil crisis, the motorcycle became the preferred mode of transportation (Lear 3). Today there are over “10 million motorcycles in the United States that are commonly used for commuting as well as for various racing competitions” (“Motorcycle Mechanics” 338).

Riding safety is an important aspect to the motorcyclist that needs to be addressed. Safety is the responsibility of the rider. “In an average year 166,000 Americans will be hospitalized as a result of a motorcycle accident. 4,700 of them die. Many others will be crippled for life. In some countries the death rate for motorcyclists is up to nine times higher than that for person riding in a car” (“Motorcycle Safety” 1). A motorcyclist needs to ride with extreme care. Steering, accelerating and braking require skill and a high degree of coordination. A motorcyclist should never drive while under the influence of alcohol. It is very important that one learns how to ride and do so safely. Wearing proper attire is also a necessary component to safety. It should not only provide comfort but also visibility and protection. A helmet, eye protection, jacket, gloves, and boots are the basic attire. The helmet is the most important piece of equipment. It should have a snug fit and be fastened securely under the chin. The helmet should also be certified by the Department of Transportation. Goggles or a face shield are both good for eye protection. Being able to see is an important aspect when riding. Wind that blasts into eyes can be very dangerous. Objects blown into the eyes can cause blurred vision. Jackets made of leather provide a great deal of protection. It is wise to wear gloves and boots in order to provide additional protection. Proper riding apparel will not prevent accidents, but it will decrease the chance of serious injuries.

Finally, motorcycles are a great source of income because one could make a career out of repairing motorcycles. Technician, service writer, parts manager and service manager are a few of the careers available within the motorcycle industry. This paragraph will be focused more on the technician’s career. The technician can make or break a facility. If the technician is knowledgeable and does quality work, the reputation of the facility will be good. If, on the other hand, the technician is not knowledgeable and his quality is lacking, the reputation of the facility will be poor and they will lose customers. One of the tasks a technician will perform is rebuilding a motorcycle engine. A motorcycle engine can be either a two-stroke or a four-stroke.

The two-stoke is preferred by racers and will be the one discussed in this paper. “A two-stroke engine is a simply constructed engine. Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and lowers their weight. This makes the two-stroke engine lighter, simpler and less expensive to manufacture and repair. The piston, cylinder, and crankcase serve dual roles in developing power” (“Motorcycle Mechanics” 74). The engine is made up of two parts: a top end and bottom end. The top end contains the cylinder, the cylinder head, piston, the piston rings and the wrist pin. The bottom end contains the crankshaft, the crankcase, the seals, the bearings and bushings. The cylinder’s job is to seal and guide the piston so that it can react to the power of the expanding gases. There are a series of passageways called ports that move gases in and out of the engine. According to David, former motorcycle mechanic, the cylinder head is the area where the gas and oxygen mix on the down stroke, but on the upstroke it is compressed and ignited by the spark plug to produce a mini explosion, which creates power. The cylinder head vibrates constantly and is subject to high temperatures. During a rebuilding job, the cylinder must be inspected thoroughly to make sure there is no warping. If warped, sanding it with emery paper can repair it. The main job of the piston is to hold the ring. The ring must be tight in order to get a good tight seal in the cylinder. If the seal is tight there will be good compression. Lack of compression means a lack of power, preventing the engine from working efficiently. The piston and the piston pin need to be checked for scratches and cleanliness during a rebuild. If any dirt or deposits are left on the piston or the ring it will cause the rings to stick and lead to power loss. So it is very important to take the time to thoroughly check and clean the piston and the piston pin. When replacing a piston, make sure there is enough clearance in the cylinder. Motorcycle books can be purchased with exact measurements and clearance values in them. If there is not enough clearance the piston will shake (seizure) resulting in noise, damage to the cylinder wall and loss of power.

In the bottom end of the engine, the crankshaft continually spins giving the piston the power to continue to work. The crankcase houses the crankshaft. It operates under conditions of high stress. “Atmospheric pressure and the partial vacuum created by the piston causes air to flow through the carburetor to pick up a charge of fuel and then to flow into the crankcase and later in to the cylinder. When the piston has closed off the intake port, the crankcase is sealed” (Motorcycle Mechanics 78). With the continued motion of the piston, the fuel mixture in forced through the transfer ports. Crankcase seals are used to prevent leakage so pressure can build in the crankcase. It is very important to locate and correct crankshaft problems to prevent more serious trouble later. The crankshaft must be measured according to specific measurements. If the crankshaft is seriously damaged, it is better to throw it away and buy a new one. Oil seals are also important during a rebuild job. The seals prevent loss of oil from the engine. The seals also prevent compression leaks. Since compression is needed to move the piston, the seal is important. In addition to preventing leaks, oil seals prevent entry of dirt and particles. During rebuilding jobs, oil seals must always be replaced. Never try to reuse and old oil seal. Finally, the bearings should always be checked whenever the engine is disassembled. Always check for wear (pit marks) and cleanliness. Spin the bearing, listening for noise and roughness. Make sure the spinning is done while the bearing is lubricated. Never spin a dry bearing. All these parts work together to create enough power to move the motorcycle. It all starts when the spark plug fires. Fuel and air in the cylinder have been compressed so when the spark plug fires the fuel ignites. This small explosion causes the piston to go downward. As the piston is moving downward it is compressing the fuel mixture in the crankcase. Once the piston starts reaching the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered. The pressure that has been built up in the cylinder now forces out the exhaust gases. By the time the piston is all the way at the bottom of its stroke the intake port opens. The fuel mixture rushes in the cylinder, filling it up with fresh fuel. During this time, the crankshaft is moving and it forces the piston upward towards the spark plug, which is called the compression stroke. As the piston compresses the fuel, a vacuum is created opening the reed valve and forcing fuel into the carburetor. As the piston reaches the top of its upward stroke, the spark plug fires again. This repeats over and over again.

Two stroke engines require a special fuel mixture. Two-stroke oil must be mixed with the gasoline. In most cases, the mixture is a 32:1 ratio, which means thirty- two parts gas with one part oil. The oil seems excessive, but it is needed in order to keep all moving parts lubricated. The oil lubricates the crankshaft, connecting rod and the cylinder walls. If the gas is not mixed with oil, the engine will run poorly.

There is a lot more to motorcycle riding than meets the eye. A motorcyclist has many responsibilities. It doesn’t matter if a person rides for entertainment, sport, or necessity: the responsibility is the same. Motorcycles are very powerful and must be driven responsibly. Proper riding techniques, safety gear and proper maintenance are key to long and happy riding. If lucky, motorcycle riding can lead to a satisfying career.

Bibliography:

Lear, G. Motorcycle Mechanics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall Inc.,1977.

Motorcycle Mechanic Institute. The Complete Guide to Motorcycle Mechanics. Phoenix, AZ:

Prentice Hall, 984.

Motorcycle Safety. 4 Dec. 2003.

Tharp, Dave.Virtual Museum Curator. The First Motorcycle. December 2002. Motorcycle

search. 6 Dec. 2002.

Advanced Manufacturing Technician Post Concern

Student’s Name

Institution

Advanced Manufacturing Technician Post Concern

Securing a vocation as an advanced manufacturing technician has been my interest in developing know-how of the career line to follow in life. As the word manufacturing technician depicts, it involves the technicalities to be applied in running equipment and machinery in the industries and other production fields during the manufacturing process. Being a student pursuing electronics related course, I will be receiving my certification in electrical trades at the end of this semester. The ultimate goal of applying the course program was sharpening my knowledge and skills in working as a manufacturing technician in future as if has been my field of interest since the beginning of education curriculum. The coursework provides precise guidelines for understanding that the vacation involves setting up, testing and adjusting plant machinery and equipment (Scott, 2016). In the field of specialization, this will be possible by the application of electrical and electronic technologies which involves a wide variety of the advanced machinery.

Time in the modern society has passed the era of depending on human as the primary sourced of labor. The industries and other production sectors have extensively adopted machine application due to their competence and fast speed performance which cannot be compared to the human rate of doing activities. Relatively, to enhance their functionality, the machines require a dependable source of energy where electricity emerges to be the significant and efficient source in the in the society. For efficiency and proper functionality, these electrical related machinery requires regular repair and maintenance services.

Also, the manufacturing machinery and equipment require set up, testing and adjustment to enhance proper running and functionality (Huang, et al. 2015). The fact that technological advancement has to be adopted and will progress as time goes acted as the motivating factor in pursuing the electrical trading course as it is inevitable to use machinery in the production process. In fact, with industrialization, there will be an expansion in the variety of machinery used to make manufacturing faster as well as improving the quality of the products.

The notion of being part of industrial advancement by taking part in the technology evolution touched the best part of my conscience encouraging me to go for my passionate vocation as a specialist in advanced manufacturing technician. On top of pursuing the electrical trade course as well as having the knowledge and skills in the field, I am bilingual. It is clear that being a manufacturing technician also involves the skills of efficiently communicating with clients and other people in the same area to enhance proper expression of the ideas as the technical area is much involving (Baumers, et al. 2016). Being a hands-on a person becomes another credential as the technicalities applied determines the effectiveness of task performance as well as the machine functionality.

Fixing stuff and finding the problem causing machinery defects becomes my best and joyous moments. This played an essential part in helping me realized my passion as well as the field of specialization being electrical trade sector and having the objective of working with a manufacturing related company.

References

Baumers, M., Dickens, P., Tuck, C., & Hague, R. (2016). The cost of additive manufacturing: machine productivity, economies of scale and technology-push. Technological forecasting and social change, 102, 193-201.

Huang, Y., Leu, M. C., Mazumder, J., & Donmez, A. (2015). Additive manufacturing: current state, future potential, gaps and needs, and recommendations. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 137(1), 014001.

Scott, G. (2016). The Industrial Manufacturing Technician Apprenticeship. Work-Based Learning in Action. Jobs For the Future.