Category: Uncategorized

Motivation is the strength that kicks off, guides and sustains goal-oriented conducts. It is what instigates people to get going, whether to seize a snack to decrease hunger or register in college to get a degree. The compelling aspects that lie under motivation can be natural, social, poignant or cognitive in nature. Analysts have developed numerous different hypotheses to clarify motivation. Each individual hypothesis tends to be somewhat partial in scope. Though, by examining the key thoughts behind each hypothesis, one can get a better comprehension of motivation all together.

Instinct hypothesis of Motivation

Regarding instinct hypotheses, people are aggravated to behave in definite ways since they are evolutionarily intended to do so. Avery good and apparent example is the seasonal migration in the animal kingdom. The animals are not born with the acquaintance and knowledge to do this but they somewhat happen to subconsciously migrate. William James established a catalog of human characters that comprised of such aspects as affection, play, disgrace, anger, terror, wariness, humility and love. The key problem with this hypothesis is that it never expounded on behavior, it merely portrayed and expounded it. By the 1920s, these hypotheses were shoved aside in support of other motivational hypothesis, but modern evolutionary psychologists currently research on the control of heritable traits and inheritance on human conduct.

Human deeds such as mocking others can be considered to be similar an animal being aggressive to a much smaller younger creatures of the identical genus in order to dishearten them from attempting to usurp the head in the bunch. It is frequently this that presents an elucidation for why an individual would act in his desired actions. Infidelity is an additional outline of this aspect. Instinct gives animals the desire to assume the simplest path to continued existence. If a noteworthy other does not create offspring or adequately satisfy an individual, that individual might search for an additional way to bring about the geneses or to live extra easily. It is an superior feature of basic animal behavior. The perception of instinct hypothesis enjoyed colossal reputation and maintenance in the belatedly 19th century. Two extremely diverse instinct hypotheses of motivation were established by the therapist Sigmund Freud, as well as, William James who was a functionalist. Critics attacked instinct hypothesis of motivation for simply labeling yet deteriorating to give details of behavior. Furthermore, instincts are never visible and are never subjected to experiential testing or behaviorist appraisal.

Central Bank and Monetary Policy Comparison: US and China

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Submission Date

1. Introduction

Every economy in the world has a number of support systems that have a mandate to maintain control to ensure that the economic conditions are within optimal levels. One of the main pillars of a stable economy is a central bank system. According to McKinnon, Lee, and Wang (2010, 255), central banks are majorly tasked with conducting monetary policies that are aimed at achieving price stability and assist in the management of economic fluctuations. Policy frameworks that are the main operating structures of central banks have gone through major changes in recent years. Since the end of the 20th century, monetary policies have utilized inflation targeting as the leading framework. For example, the central banks in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Canada and the euro economies have introduced explicit inflation targets to manage monetary policies. Similarly, a report by Taylor (2019, 107) has identified that a number of emerging economies are switching from monetary aggregate targeting to an inflation targeting structure. These activities provide evidence of the role that central banks play in ensuring that an economy is stable. They conduct monetary policies through an adjustment of money supply and other open market operations (Edge and Liang 2019). For example, the US Federal Reserve System may decide to reduce the supply of money in the economy through selling government bonds. The purpose of such operations in the open market would be to drive short-term interest rates to influence overall economic activity. In this report, the conduct of monetary policy by the US federal reserve will be pitted against the Chinese equivalent in terms of regulating the economy. The comparison is important in showing which system works well under what circumstances. Overall, the role of central banks in conducting monetary policies cannot be understated as seen in the way it helps economies to recover from slumps and to initiate economic activities that result in positive outcomes for an economy, and the different methods employed by the Federal Reserve in the US and the People’s Bank of China were uniquely suited to the two economies due to their different structures and economic systems.

2. Data and Methodology

This report will use empirical data from the US Federal Reserve and the Chinese Central Bank to show the conduct of these institutions with regard to monetary policies. Data from primary and secondary sources will be used for purposes of a comparative analysis on how the two nations use their central banks to formulate monetary policies. The report uses a qualitative comparative analysis to analyze the causal contribution of conditions used by the US federal reserve and the Chinese central bank. The report begins by first documenting different configurations of the conditions linked to the individual economies with every case of observable outcomes. The minimization procedure is preferred to identify the simplest sets of the conditions that account for observable outcomes. Equifinality is observed in each of the cases for the Chinese and US central banks where more than a singular way that results to outcomes on monetary policies can be observed (Correa et al. 2021, 89-91). In this report, monetary policy conduct following the 2007-2009 Great Recession for the US and China will be compared.

Data shows that the central banks, from a neutral point of view, often use policies that stimulate a given economy in anticipation of or during a recession (Williamson 2020, 199). In such instances, the expansion of money supply is done to bring about reduced borrowing costs and lower the interest rates, with the objective being to boost investment and consumption.

The Great Recession started towards the last quarter of 2007 and ended in mid-2009, making it the longest global recession since the Second World War. In the US, data from Menno and Oliviero (2020, 103568) assert that the real GDP dropped 4.3% from its peak in the last quarter of 2007 to the trough in mid-2009. In 2007, the unemployment rate in the US was only 5%, a phenomenon that changed in 2009 with a rate of more than 9% and at 10% in the last quarter of 2009 (Mian and Sufi 2010, 54). Similarly, the prices of homes fell roughly 30% from their peak in 2006, while the S&P 500 index reduced 57% from 2007 to 2009 (Mian and Sufi 2010, 54). The total net worth of US nonprofit organizations and households fell from $69 trillion to $55 trillion between 2007 and 2009 (Mian and Sufi 2010, 54). The 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and the 2008 Economic Stimulus Act were effective in reviving the US economic growth.

In China, from 1978 to 2010, GDP share in the global economy rose from 1.7% to 9.5% (Jiang 2015, 361). The negative effects of the Great Recession on the Chinese market were considerably stronger. However, the effects were largely unrealized because China, amidst the recession, continued to record high economic growth rates. In 2008, the country recorded a 9.6% growth rate and a 9.2% growth rate in 2009 (Dai 2006, 201). However, these figures, albeit impressive by global standards, were bad news for the Chinese economy which had previously recorded a 14% growth in 2007 (Cabestan, Meglio, and Richet 2012, 48). Table 1 below summarizes the annual GDP growth rate in China from 2005 to 2011, revealing the trends leading up to the Great Recession.

Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

China’s GDP 11.30 12.70 14.20 9.60 9.22 10.33 9.47

Table 1: China’s Annual GDP growth rate

Source: IMF World Economic Outlook.

3. Analysis

3.1 Conduct of Monetary Policy by the Federal Reserve System of the US

The US federal reserve influences cost and availability of credit and money in an effort to ensure a healthy economy. The federal reserve is mandated with two coequal objectives of ensuring maximum employment and ensuring stable prices (Thorbecke 2002, 259-260). In simple terms, the US federal reserve has a mandate to ensure low and stable inflation. The dual obligation of the federal reserve spills over to include a third objective: provide moderate long term interest rates. The basic tool available for the Federal Reserve to use in conducting monetary policy include the funds rate. Funds rate are the rate that financial institutions such as banks are charged for overnight borrowing in the government (federal) funds market (Kuttner 2001, 530). Any changes in the funds rate would influence other forms of interest rates that also affect the borrowing costs for businesses and individuals and the entire financial conditions. For example, the federal reserve may lower interest rates, triggering several effects such as the ability of people to borrow more as households and business get credit facilities at cheaper rates. Similarly, businesses have more purchasing power to expand, are able to hire more, thus influencing employment. The improved demand for products would push wages and other costs upwards, influencing inflation.

As the US economy continues to change, the interpretation of stable prices and maximum employment objectives have shifted to accommodate changes. For example, the 2007-2009 global financial crisis aftermath led to a long expansion that did not trigger notable rises in inflation even after labor market conditions strengthened. Data shows that the federal reserve system de-emphasized previous concerns on employment thus going beyond the maximum levels, in order to focus instead on the shortfalls of employment under the minimum levels (Lane and Milesi-Ferretti 2017). These examples point to evidence that the US federal reserve system has the role of interpretating and redefining new parameters that apply to monetary policies that would ensure the health of the economy. Maximum or minimum employment are objectives that can be modified to suit the needs of the economy.

The US federal reserve views maximum employment as an inclusive and broad-based objective that cannot be directly measured and is influenced by shifts in the dynamics and structure of the US labor market. Therefore, the federal reserve does not automatically specify fixed objectives for employment (Gorton and Metrick 2013, 47). The assessment of the federal reserve on the shortfalls of US employment levels from maximum points are based on uncertain indicators. Instinctively, however, whenever the economy attains maximum employment, this means that a job is available to anyone who desires one. Policymakers in the Federal Reserve perceive a 2% inflation rate is most consistent in the long run in its mandate for stable prices measured through yearly changes in the prices index for the expenditures of personal consumption (Bundick and Smith 2021, 11). Therefore, whenever inflation persists below 2%, the federal reserve aims for inflation to be slightly above 2% for a short period. These adjustments in the rate of inflation are meant to maintain stable prices, not just in the short run, but overtime through sustained control of the interaction between employment, interest rates, and prices.

Following the Great Recession, the US federal reserve undertook expansionary monetary policies to boost investment and consumption. Figure 1 below shows an expansionary policy curve where a reduction of taxes and an increase in the government spending led to a shift in the aggregate demand curve to the right to increase output. The price level changes from P1 to P2 leading to an expansion of the aggregate demand.

Figure 1: Expansionary policy US Federal Reserve (Source: Bordo, Choudhri, and Schwartz 2002, 21)

Prior to the recession, the federal reserve had steadily increased interest rates to maintain stable inflation rates in the US economy. Market interest rates rose as a response, leading to a moderation of real estate prices. The rates on adjustable mortgages and exotic loans reset at higher rates than expected. The consequence was a bursting of the housing bubble. The interest rates were lowered to zero by the US federal reserve. As the housing prices started to reduce significantly in 2007, the economy slowed. To solve the issue, the US federal reserve cut its discount rate from 5% to 0% (Cuba-Borda 2014). The federal reserve also purchased government securities. This was in an effort to promote liquidity. The federal reserve further offered more than $7.7 trillion to banks as emergency loans in an quantitative easing move (Flemming 2012, 162).

3.2 Conduct of Monetary Policy by the Chinese Central Bank

As of 2020, China was the fastest growing economy in the world. The country uses a very unique open-market economy that also has aspects of a socialist system. The government retains significant control of the economy, yet operates a fairly free-market policy. Primarily, the nation is an export and manufacturing driven market that retains tremendous levels of forex capital due to exports (Jiang 2015, 361). The People’s Bank of China, its central bank, controls the money supply of the country with an aim of ensuring that the capital availability, price levels, economic cycle, and inflation in the country are stable. China’s money supply policy is different from other nations like the US due to its unique economic structure.

China operates with a trade surplus due to its export and manufacturing driven economy. It sells more than it buys from the rest of the world (Chan 2012, 199). Exporters get paid in US dollars for their products but use local yuan to pay for wages and expenses. Due to the population of the nation, the high consumption, the increased US dollar supply in China and the demand for the yuan causes the yuan to rise against the dollar. Such situations lead to exports from China being costlier and a loss of competitive advantage in pricing in the global export market. This would lead to lower sales of the manufactured products, high unemployment, and significant stagnation of the economy (Hodson and Quaglia 2009, 941). The central bank intervenes by keeping exchange rates lower using artificial measures.

The relationship between the yuan and the economy is strange partly because of the government actions on controlling the same and due to its dependence on exports and manufacturing. From the Great Recession in 2010 to 2020, major market reforms have raised the market orientation of China opening up the economy. China controls its money supply via control of the forex rates, sterilization actions, printing currency, discount rates, and the reserve ratio. Control of the forex rates allows the Chinese central bank to absorb large inflows resulting from foreign capital due to the trade surplus. The central bank purchases foreign currency from Chinese exporters and issues the same in yuan (Dai 2006, 201). It also practices publishing of currency and exchanges it for forex as a way of retaining a tight or fixed forex rate. Sterilization actions are also common as the central bank increases the supply of local currency to increase chances of inflation. Reserve ration and discount rates are used similar to the rest of the world to mitigate money supply in the economy.

28634785934500China’s high dependence on export was reflected in the Great Recession as it suffered immensely. Towards the end of 2007, export demand came crashing due to the financial crisis in China and the country suffered a shift from inflation to deflation as shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Growth rate of exports and investment (Source: Vincelette et al. 2010)

In response, data shows that the government of China intended to mitigate its falling GDP growth through monetary expansion (Hodson and Quaglia 2009, 941). The country introduced a stimulus package through interest rate subsidies and direct grants. The Chinese central bank increased its expenditure, provided tax reductions, performed a VAT reform, cut back on business tax, increased the export rebate rates, and raised the individual income tax threshold. The differences between China and the US in terms of conduct and response during and after the 2008 financial crisis are evident. China’s banking system was relatively safe after non-performing loans were written off and capital injected into the economy (Cabestan, Meglio, and Richet 2012, 48). Consequently, China had no liquidity shortage, the monetary multiplier was not significantly affected, and there was no evidence of a credit crunch compared to the United States. As a result, the dramatic increase in the liquidity in the inter-bank system and market was translated into an increase in the broad money and bank credit.

4. Conclusion

In this discussion, the data and evidence presented has shown the conduct of monetary policy by the US federal reserve and the Chinese equivalent in terms of regulating the economy amidst the Great Recession. The comparison is important in showing which system works well under what circumstances. In the end, the discussion has established that the role of central banks in conducting monetary policies cannot be understated as seen in the way it helps economies to recover from slumps and to initiate economic activities that result in positive outcomes for an economy. China and the US used different monetary policies to stimulate growth after the Great Recession. While the objectives of the policies were relatively the same, the setup of the two economies made it impossible to employ the same strategies. The different methods employed by the Federal Reserve in the US and the People’s Bank of China were uniquely suited to the two economies due to their different structures and economic systems. The discussion establishes that none of the methods are superior to the other, as both nations were able to achieve economic growth shortly after the recession.

Bibliography

Bordo, Michael D., Ehsan U. Choudhri, and Anna J. Schwartz. 2002. “Was expansionary monetary

policy feasible during the great contraction? An examination of the gold standard constraint.” Explorations in Economic history 39, no. 1: 1-28. https://doi.org/10.3386/w7125

Bundick, Brent, and A. Lee Smith. 2021. “Did the Federal Reserve Anchor Inflation Expectations

Too Low?.” Economic Review-Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City 106, no. 1: 5-23. https://doi.org/10.18651/er/v106n1bundicksmith

Cabestan, Jeanpierre Edt, Jeanfrancois Edt Di Meglio, and Xavier Richet, eds. 2012. China and

the global financial crisis: a comparison with Europe. Vol. 48. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203115626 Chan, Gerald. 2012. “China’s response to the global financial crisis and its regional leadership in

East Asia.” Asia Europe Journal 9, no. 2: 197-209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-012-0306-6

Correa, Ricardo, Keshav Garud, Juan M. Londono, and Nathan Mislang. 2021. “Sentiment in

central banks’ financial stability reports.” Review of Finance 25, no. 1: 85-120. https://doi.org/10.1093/rof/rfaa014 Cuba-Borda, Pablo. 2014. “What explains the great recession and the slow

recovery?.” Manuscript, Federal Reserve Board (2014). http://www.pcubaborda.net/documents/PCB_GreatRecession_June2015.pdf

Dai, Meixing. 2006. “Inflation-targeting under a managed exchange rate: The case of the Chinese

central bank.” Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 4, no. 3: 199-219. https://doi.org/10.1080/14765280600995579

Edge, Rochelle M., and Nellie Liang. 2019. “New financial stability governance structures and

central banks.” Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2019-019. Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, https://doi.org/10.17016/FEDS.2019.019

Fleming, Michael J. 2009. “Federal reserve liquidity provision during the financial crisis of 2007–

2009.” Annu. Rev. Financ. Econ. 4, no. 1 (2012): 161-177. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-financial-110311-101735

Gorton, Gary, and Andrew Metrick. 2013. “The federal reserve and panic prevention: The roles of

financial regulation and lender of last resort.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 27, no. 4: 45-64. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.4.45

Hodson, Dermot, and Lucia Quaglia. 2009. “European perspectives on the global financial crisis:

Introduction.” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 47, no. 5: 939-953. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5965.2009.02029.x

IMF World Economic Outlook. China’s Annual GDP growth rate

https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO, July 24, 2021.

Jiang, Yang. 2015. “Vulgarisation of Keynesianism in China’s response to the global financial

crisis.” Review of International Political Economy 22, no. 2: 360-390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2014.915227

Kuttner, Kenneth N. 2001. “Monetary policy surprises and interest rates: Evidence from the Fed

funds futures market.” Journal of monetary economics 47, no. 3: 523-544. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3932(01)00055-1

Lane, Mr Philip R., and Mr Gian M. Milesi-Ferretti. International financial integration in the

aftermath of the global financial crisis. International Monetary Fund, 2017. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781484300336.001

McKinnon, Ronald, Brian Lee, and Yi David Wang. 2010. “The Global Credit Crisis and China’s

Exchange Rate.” The Singapore Economic Review 55, no. 02: 253-272. https://doi.org/10.1142/s0217590810003705 Menno, Dominik, and Tommaso Oliviero. 2020. “Financial intermediation, house prices, and the

welfare effects of the US Great Recession.” European Economic Review 129: 103568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2020.103568

Mian, Atif, and Amir Sufi. 2010. “The great recession: Lessons from microeconomic

data.” American Economic Review 100, no. 2: 51-56. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.2.51

Taylor, John B. 2019. “Inflation targeting in high inflation emerging economies: Lessons about

rules and instruments.” Journal of Applied Economics 22, no. 1: 103-116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15140326.2019.1565396 Thorbecke, Willem. 2002. “A dual mandate for the federal reserve: The pursuit of price stability

and full employment.” Eastern Economic Journal 28, no. 2: 255-268.

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198–213. https://doi10.3138/cpp.2019-058

Motivational Interview

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u The five stages of change PAGEREF _Toc378595597 h 1The five techniques of motivational interviewing PAGEREF _Toc378595598 h 2The five core components of motivational interviewing PAGEREF _Toc378595599 h 2

Motivation is the change of one’s attitude and character through the introduction of positive reinforcement. There are several methods of motivating people depending on the situation at hand. Motivational interview involves enhancing motivation using different stages and techniques so as to yield alternative results (Miller & Rollnick, 2002).

The five stages of change

The five stages of motivation seek to conceptualize a situation by recognizing a problem and offering a method of change. The change in this case should affect their approach on the condition that makes them behave in a certain way. The first stage is known as in the pre contemplation stage. Offenders in this stage seek to defend their behavior. This defensive nature is triggered by the pressure to change from either family, friends or professionals. Despite the evidence of denial in the behavior of the patient, the patient recognizes that he or she has a problem. It takes time for the offender to admit the existence of the problem thus the phrase pre contemplation. The second stage is the contemplation phase. The offender in this is ready to admit the existence of an underlying problem. Most people in this stage are tasked with weighing the merits and demerits of the result of their change. The third stage is the preparation or determination change. This is a crucial stage in the life of an offender. People in this stage display signs of change in that their actions are different from their normal behavior. The fourth stage is the action or willpower stage. During this stage, people make the declaration of the need to change. A person has to develop the willpower that helps them overcome the internal and external pressure. The final stage is the fifth stage which involves maintaining of the set goals and objectives (Rosengren, 2009).

The five techniques of motivational interviewingAs stated earlier, there are five techniques of motivational interviewing. The first principle is the expression of empathy. This involves identifying with the situation that that a patient or offender is experiencing. The second principle involves developing discrepancy by ensuring consistency when applying the agents of change. The third principle entails avoiding of arguments by maintaining a positive attitude towards the change process. The fourth principle is the maintenance of resistance in the case of the introduction of any negative change. The fifth principle is the support of self efficacy. This involves adopting efficiency in all aspects of the change process (Miller & Rollnick, 2002

The five core components of motivational interviewing

The five core principles of motivational interviewing are essential for the success of a person. The first the core principle is the use of counselor style motivating. The second technique is the introduction of positive therapeutic influence in the life of the patient. The third technique is the introduction of a comfortable environment to improve the cooperation of the patient. The fourth component of motivation is the adaptation of group therapy. This allows for a person to experience change through the help of their peers. The final component is the use of reflection to fight any form of influence. This makes the patient derive strength from the negative aspect of their previous life (Rosengren, 2009).

Conclusion

Motivation interviews are essential for enhancing behavioral change. This change is positive in nature and is thus ideal for the improvement of the society. The various motivational techniques ensure that change occurs effectively. It is thus ideal to adopt motivational change techniques as a form of eradication various forms of behavior.

References

Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change. New York: Guilford Press.

Rosengren, D. B. (2009). Building motivational interviewing skills: A practitioner workbook. New York: Guilford Press.

Adult Learning Theories Using Theorist Knowles & Dewey, John Dewey: The later works 1938—1939, Vol. 13 (pp. 1—62). Carbondale, IL: SIU Press.

Over half a century ago, Dewey (1938) expressed the belief that all genuine education comes through experience (Dewey 1938). Since then, many educators have struggled with the complex implications of that simply stated notion. Recognizing its complexity, Dewey advised using those cases in which we find there is a real development of desirable [experiences] and to find out how this development took place (p. 4) and using this new understanding to guide our efforts at teaching and learning.

The notion of inquiry appears in many places in Dewey’s work, though he began to refer to it using that term only in his later writings. In Experience and Education (1939/1991), Dewey wrote, “the immediate and direct concern of an educator is … with the situations in which interaction takes place” (Dewey 1938)

Dewey writes of a “new education,” wherein, rather than learning from “texts and teachers,” students learn from experience and there is “active participation by the students in the development of what is taught.” Dewey argues that this model breaks down the barrier between school and the rest of a student’s life, making a more fluid usefulness of knowledge gained in and outside of school. It only seems logical that students will invest more in knowledge that they have created themselves and can share with others in many areas of life. It gives the students the chance to become both teacher and learner.

Preparing for full lives as citizens and individuals; embedding inclusion, teamwork, creativity and innovation and to live rich and fulfilling lives as citizens and individuals, learners must be prepared for and have access to choices that affect their futures. But the purpose for learning does not lie only in the future; skills, knowledge, and experiences must have meaning in the present, too. Dewey believed skills must be useful in the here and now (Dewey 1938) Knowles, M. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Englewood Cliffs: Cambridge.

The theory of andragogy was defined by Malcolm Knowles, who often has been referred to as the “father of andragogy.” He was one of the world’s leaders in the area of adult education.

The andragogical model designed by Knowles is based on several important assumptions including the need to know: Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it, the learner’s self-concept: Adults have a self-concept that includes being responsible for their own decision, for their own lives, The role of the learners’ experiences: Adults come into the educational arena with both a greater volume and a different quality of experience than youth. This difference in quantity and quality of experience has several consequences for adult education that must be considered. This also means that adult learners, themselves, contribute rich resources to the learning process,

Knowles (1970), in his theory of adult learning, differentiates the way adults learn from the way children learn. These differences are stated as follows:

• Adults are autonomous and self-directed;

• Adults are problem centered (they need to understand the ‘Why’ behind the need to learn);

• Adults are practical and are problem-solvers, and

• Adults have accumulated significant life experiences.

Based on these differences, trainers need to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Presentation strategies such as case studies, role-playing, and simulations tend to be most effective. Teachers should facilitate those modalities rather than lecture.

The Readiness to learn: Adults come ready to learn the things they need to in order to better cope with real life experiences. The teacher needs to respond to this need by exposing students to models of superior performance, career counseling, simulation exercises, and other techniques, Orientation to learning: In contrast to children’s and youth’s subject-centered orientation to learning, adults are life-centered in their orientation to learning. They learn new knowledge, understandings, skills, values, and attitudes most effectively when they are presented in the context of applicability to real-life situations and the motivation: While adults are responsive to some external motivators, the most potent motivators are internal pressures, like the desire for increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life.

Bibliography:

Dewey, J. (1939/1991). Experience and education. In J. A. Boydston (Ed.).

Katherine H. Murray Frommelt, 2000, Non-Traditional Student’s Response to Graduate education.

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CENTRAL CLAIM: FEMINISM IN OTHHELLO.

Othello was written at a period shaped by complex social and geopolitical issues. This article seeks to unravel the feminism and the feminist characters in Othello. The play is multifaceted and in that historic context it still speaks to audiences today in a dynamic and a legit way. William Shakespeare’s Othello gives a provision of understanding it from a feminist perspective. A critical feminist analysis of the play Othello has given us a solid and a definite judgement of the different central social values of women seen taking center stage during the Elizabethan society. During that period and time, the society was patriarchal and the women in the society were expected to be timid and fearful and to serve their male counterparts. Their voices were not heard and they had to device survival mechanisms. Women were thought to be physiological and psychologically inferior to men.

There are three women in Othello: Desdemona, Emilia and Bianca. From how the women behave in the play there are a clear indication of what the society was like at that time. In general, the paper will analyze how the women behaved and the feminism lens of that Elizabethan period. In my opinion from how the women in play behaved, it is a clear indication of what the society was like at that moment. In the play women are seen as possession, they are owned by their husbands and cannot make decisions of their own. It is also evident that the women were purchased through, marriage and now they live a; life that according to the men, they are to now pay back by their service in marriage and ensuring the man is satisfied.

Desdemona, is a victim of a society that places the value of women in their marital status. It is crystal clear that she is a virtuous woman however, the character traits displayed by Shakespeare in describing her echo a patriarchal society. Desdemona is portrayed as a “submissive”, “loyal” and “innocent”. Female submission, loyalty and innocence have always been a bone of contention for the feminist woman. These are all traits rooted in religious teachings but acted out in reality as a form of oppression to females. Submission instills some sense of inferiority to the woman while giving the male power to act with authority. Desdemona goes from being under the domination of her father to that of her husband, Othello. In the end, her loyalty and innocence costs her peace of mind, happiness and her life.

When her marriage to Othello is threatened, Desdemona is placed on the defensive side to prove her innocence with their husband’s opinions, although baseless, always triumphing. This is in line with the patriarchal view that a man’s opinions and decisions are final. This in conjunction with Desdemona’s view of her marriage as her source of prestige and status in her society place her in a position where she has no option but to defend her marriage because leaving it would be detrimental to her social status. (Massie,2017)

Her lowly status in society puts her in jeopardy when Lago aims to destroy her marriage. She is not in any position of power to deflect nor defend herself from Lago’s claims, Desdemona seems to have some form of social support structure as she tells a friend of the woes of her marriage. Nevertheless, this is not enough to fight off Othello’s decision due to his broken trust and fear of his reputation.

To conclude what has already been stated, feminism in Othello is alive and demonstrates that women have been struggling in a male dominated society. They have had to break barriers and to swim through very stormy seas to ensure they are valued and seen for who they really are not just vessels of pleasure.

Works Cited.

Massie, Elizabeth. “A Feminist Critique of Othello.” Pentangle’s History (2017): 29.

Pender, Carson. ““The Fruits Are to Ensue”: Male Dominance and Female Desirability in William Shakespeare’s Othello.” (2018).

Diploma in Dental Hygiene and Therapy

November 2013

Adult Therapy Presentation Case ReportCandidate Number:68

Diagnosis:dental caries

Date Treatment Commenced:21st May 2013

Date Treatment Completed:18th September 2013

Patient’s details

Gender:female

Age:40yrs

Occupation:

Referred by:Professor P Preshaw

Background history

This patient was referred by his general dental practitioner to professor Preshaw’s consultant clinic at the Newcastle dental hospital regarding her periodontal condition. GDP tried routine scaling and OHI, yet there has been no change

The patient was examined on professor Preshaw’s clinic and patient was then referred to myself for treatment of dental caries and generalised mild chronic periodontitis.

Restorative history

She is a regular attender to GDP every 6-12 months. She has been attending scale appointments for 30minutes, without LA; 31 is root filled with composite.

Presenting complaint

Patient noticed bleeding upon brushing, but other than that she did not have any concerns.

Medical history

Patient is fit and well

Social history

None smoker and drinks about 3 units per week

Oral hygiene habits

Patient brushes twice a day with an electric tooth brush and also reports using bottle brushes once per day

Basic Periodontal Examination

3 1 4

2 2 3

Examination

Minimal soft deposits present, generalised extensive hard deposits present, caries present on 16, 26, 27, 28, 46

Treatment plan

caries management 16, 26, 27, 28, 46

plaque score

full periodontal indices

course of RSI on pockets of 4mm+ with LA

OHI basis technique and interdental cleaning

Bitewings to confirm caries 46

Radiographic report: (DPT/OPG and bitewings)

View: DPT/OPG

Quality: Grade 1

18 17 16   14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24   26 27  28

47 46   44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34   36 37 38

Teeth present:

Unerupted: 48 horizontal impacted

Restorations: 36m, 31 lingual

Root filled: 31

Horizontal bone loss: 20-30%

Calculus present: 18d, 17dm, 16m, 26dm, 28d, 44d, 46m, 36m, 37dm

Radiographic report: (bitewing)

View: bitewing

Quality: grade 1 and 2

18 17 16   14 13           24   26 27  

47 46                 34   36 37 38

Teeth present on radiograph:

Restorations: 36m

Crestal bone loss: 10-15%

Overerrupted: 17

Caries into dentine: 16, 26, 27, 28, 46o

Treatment visits: (verbal consent was gained from patient and medical history was checked, with no changes throughout)

Visit 1: 21/05/13

Explained to patient that the treatment was to be carried out over several visits. Verbal Consent gained from patient for photographs and the use of the treatment carried out as my case study.

intra oral exam was undertaken

PPD’s under taken

recession and mobility completed

Plaque score completed 39%

OHI given, electric tooth brushing instructions given and introduced bottle brushes green, purple and red

Visit 2: 11/06/13

Pre-treatment photos taken with patient’s consent

bitewings taken

plaque score 29%

re-enforced OHI

Visit 3: 09/07/13

Buccal infiltration administered to 26, 27, 28 with epinephrine 1:80, 000 2,2ml

Access gained with high speed and round heard diamond bur

Caries removed on 26, 27, 28

26 and 27 filled with composite a1 shade and occlusion checked

28 filled with amalgam and calcium hydroxide placed before the restoration as filling was deep

Post ope given and patient warned about 28 being deep and might be sensitive to hot and cold

Visit 4 :10/09/13

46 and 16 caries removed without LA as patient requested to try without LA first and if needed she would let me know and it was not required at this time

46 setting calcium hydroxide placed before amalgam

16 was filled with composite a1 shade

occlusion checked for both dentations

gross scale lower arch

introduced single tufted brush and re-enforced OHI

diet sheet given

Visit 5: 18/09/13

plaque score 17%

vitality test done on the 28 and it gave positive response

localised RSI completed on pockets greater than 4mm without LA as patient declined LA

Full mouth fine scale

reviewed bottle brushes

re- enforced OHI

diet analysis carried out and diet advice given

Maintenance phase patient to be reviewed every 3months, for 6months on her periodontal condition

Reflection

One of my concerns, while treating this patient, was the fact that the patient did not seem to have any concerns about her teeth and she also didn’t seem to understand why she had been referred to professor Preshaw’s clinic by her GDP as she said her teeth didn’t bother her that much other than a little bit of bleeding upon brushing occasionally. Going by this, it made me assume that patient might not be ready to make any changes.

Yet, this turned out to be a mistake, because patient seemed very open to change. So even though, as a health care professional I am to understand that not everybody is ready for a change and I have to respect patient’s wishes, it would be wrong to rash to conclusions based on other observations than the one done by myself.

When I met the patient, she was very interested in what I was advising her and she was open to making changes. This taught me that I should not just read the letters and the notes and assume that patient might not be ready for a change. This also made me think about the methods of identifying patients that are ready for change and the ones that are not. Never take patients at face value, but always observe them and communicate with them in order to find out their inner concerns.

Another thing that I realised while treating this patient, was that sometimes when you are looking at the carious teeth on the radiograph, you cannot predict how deep the lesions are, before carrying out treatment; I always told myself that the lesions are not that deep, only to find them deeper than what I actually anticipated.

Overall I am quite pleased with the outcome of the treatment and patient was happy with the results.

Psychology:

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Introduction

Motivation is the application of a positive factor so as to get a positive result form an individual. All people are prone to undergo a stressful period where they need a push to the next level. This push determines the success or failure of the receiver of the motivational instrument. The theories of motivation were introduced to the world though psychologists such as Abraham Maslow, Sigmund Freud, Fredrick Herzberg and Fredrick Taylor (Miner, 2008). These psychologists spent the better part of their career coming up with the theories. There are several theories of motivation that can be applied to motivate a person in different situations. The application of these theories is essential to the sustainability of the success of the future generation. Being an aspiring psychologist, I have received motivation from different people. These people have direct or indirect contact with me. This showcases motivation as a factor that does not have boundaries. Motivation has been a vital part of my life from the early stages of my life to my current point in life. Some of these influences are unconscious sources or conscious. Unconscious motivation plays a significant role due to the manifestation that it encourages. These motivational theories are have impacted significantly on my choice to pursue psychology as my career. The analysis of motivational influences is thus ideal in that it showcases the reasons for my actions in the past and present day (Beck, 2004).

The focus of this paper is to provide an analysis of motivational theories in psychology. The paper uses examples of psychologists such as Maslow by providing their take on motivation influences. The paper uses this information to explain what motivates me to take on psychology as a career. The paper finally offers a concluding paragraph that summarizes its contents.

Motivation involves encouraging an individual to pursue a certain goal or objective. The fulfillment of this objective acts as a source of happiness and achievement which in turn adds meaning to a person’s life. A person can be motivated consciously or unconsciously depending on their surrounding environments. Most individuals are influenced at an early stage in their life making this a crucial time of there. Motivation entails using the positive aspects in the environment so as to derive a positive result. There are different types of motivational method that are classified into theories. These theories are used to date by the general public in various industries making them an essential aspect in the world of psychology (Beck, 2004).

Theories of motivation

Motivational theories are theories that explain different motivational techniques and their role in the influencing of behavior. There are several motivational theories that exist in present day. These theories are inspired by different situations and thus reflect on different individuals. One of the psychologists who has played a significant role in the determining these theories is Abraham Maslow (Beck, 2004).

Maslow is known for his motivational theory that talks on the hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, human beings are motivated by items that they do not have direct possession or contact. These needs are not satisfied due to a variety of features that are determined by the internal and external environment (Miner, 2008). The hierarchy in this case consists of needs and wants that human beings experience at one point in their life. The first category consists of physiological needs; these needs consist of basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing and education. These needs are essential for the proper growth and development of all the human beings. Lack of physiological needs creates a vacuum that puts a strain on their progress of an individual’s life. People who experience this situation rely on factors such as family, friends and faith so that they can improve their life (Miner, 2008).

Exposure to these needs is ideal in that it improves the self worth of an individual. People who fall under this category are said to be less fortunate in that they lack the essential resources to ease their life. The second category in the pyramid is the safety needs; safety needs comprise of security in all aspects of life. Beings able to live in a safe environment increase the confidence of a person. Safety creates the provision for investment which in turn, yields more progress in the life. The third stage is social needs; social needs comprise of family, friends, social status, and lifestyle. This stage is a pivotal part of life due to the aspect of communication. People strive to perfect their social needs so that they can elevate their position in life (Miner, 2008). This stage is also significant because people need comfort from their friends and family when experiencing different hardships. The fourth stage is the esteem needs; these needs are essential due to the fact that they help human beings accomplish the goals and objectives they have. Self esteem is ideal for the success of any person. Self esteem is initiated right from the time of an individual’s childhood. Through self esteem a person is able to control all the challenges that come with life. Lack of self esteem reduces the motivation of an individual making it harder for them to survive in life. This stage is required to go through all the stages in life with ease. The last and final stage is self actualization; self actualization is a state of superiority. At this stage an individual has achieved all the objectives that they have set. These objectives constitute to the overall happiness and success of a human being (Beck, 2004).

Very few people manage to reach the self actualization stage. Belonging to a certain stage determines the amount of motivation one has. If a person is born into a family that does not have a lot in terms of financial resources, they are likely to work harder so that they can fill this vacuum. This situation can however take a different turn in that some people may accept their state and choose not to improve it. Motivation involves adding a positive factor to the life of a person so that they can use it to improve on their situation. The lack of a certain commodity influences a person to strive so that they can acquire the commodity. This is brought about by manifesting in an item until one achieves their goal or objective (Miner, 2008).

A close look at Maslow’s theory of motivation indicates that he is one of the sources of inspiration for my choice of psychology as a subject. The theory mentions that a person cannot be motivated if they do not have a motivating factor. This simply means that an individual has to have something that to look forward to before they can set their goal (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). The United States has the most successful economy in the world. Despite this, the country is experiencing high levels of poverty due to the rate of employment. Over fifty percent of the economies population is living on government welfare and do not have an adequate healthcare plan. These statistics display that the economy is not in a good place. The fact that a country like the United States is not able to provide for its citizens adequate living standards increases the rate of uncertainty of the future generation (Hoffmann, 2007).

As a young member of the population, it is essential for me to get an education so that I can compete with the more than capable job seekers. My choice get a college degree is thus motivated by the fact that a college education is essential for the sustainability of the society. My choice to take on psychology as a major as opposed to engineering or education is determined by the social ills that occur in today’s society. Today’s society cannot be compared with the society that the older generation grew up. The rate of insecurity, evil and poverty continues to increase on a daily basis. Majority of the crimes that are committed are as a result of people who are mentally or emotionally scared. One of the ways that people can make the country safer to live in is by investing in careers that eradicate these occurrences. Psychology is a significant contributor in the safety of the community due to the ability to communicate with social deviants (Hoffmann, 2007). Some of the most disturbing cases committed in the country over the years have been solved with the aid of psychologists. Having psychology as my major is not only a personal objective but a community objective. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, each individual is placed in one of the categories of the pyramid (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). As a student, there are some achievements that I am yet to achieve in the future. This places me in the fourth and fifth category because achieving my dream would be a driving force for the start of my career. The ability to kick start my career will validate my existence in the self actualization stage. This is due to the satisfaction that comes with the achievement of my goal. The probability of having a positive future without a college education is low. The fact that I am yet to achieve a degree motivates me to work hard so that I can graduate. This is reflective of Maslow’s theory that states that the lack of a commodity makes a person motivated to work toward achieving that goal (Miner, 2008).

As stated earlier, motivation is influenced unconsciously and consciously by the surrounding environment. One of the factors that the society continues to face is the high rate of divorce. This is created by the change of the society in terms of social roles, education and globalization. One does not have to be a product of a broken home to experience the impact it has on children. Being a physiologist is ideal in that it a person identifies with children who are having hard times coping with divorce. This is source of motivation is unconscious in that there is not particular person that has geared me towards helping such children. The events in the society make me want to take a stand so that I can be of help to people who are in need (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006).

Motivation starts at an early stage; most of the individuals derive motivation without even being aware. This is known as unconscious motivation due to the lack of knowledge of the impact of a positive factor. One of the physiologists who placed emphasis on unconscious motivation is Sigmund Freud (Miner, 2008). He mentions a human beings behavior is comprises of desires, thoughts and memories. These factors are represented by the unconscious state making them unconscious forms of motivation. These unconscious actions influence the conscious actions of an individual. Most of the actions that people perform are triggered by the unconscious thoughts that they relay. This is one of the theories that give credit to positive thinking and positive actions. A person who thinks of negative thoughts and desires creates negative situations. This is because negative thoughts give rise to negative actions (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). This applies to the application of positive thoughts as a source of motivation. This source of motivation has played a significant role in my decision to get a college education by studying psychology. Both unconscious and conscious motivation work hand in hand making them complement each other. Thinking about being a psychologist in future influences me to apply all my talents so that I can achieve my goals. Applying my talents is performed by positive actions such as hard work, studying for exams and concentrating in all things psychology.

Motivation is used in places such as the workplaces, schools and sports. My choice to take on psychology is inspired by my family. Through my family, I am able to align myself with positive features so that I can get positive results. My choice to take on psychology as a course is inspired by the needs to understand people better. Psychology is the study of the mind of a human being (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). Human beings have the same characteristics which makes them similar in nature. Despite this, they possess different qualities that set different people apart from each other. Having different personalities creates different character traits that make each individual unique. Being unique gives rise to different social groups that people use to identify with each other. Human beings cannot be contained in a particular group due to the different personalities they portray. It is thus ideal to have the ability communicate with different sorts of people in different social classes and creeds. As stated earlier, psychology aids a person understand the thoughts, feelings, qualities and character traits of their peers (Hoffmann, 2007). Understanding different people encourages communication which in turn, gives rise to respect. When people respect each other, they are able to maintain peaceful situations where war would be the obvious choice. Choosing to study psychology is thus motivated by my need to understand the different character traits that people have. This form of motivation portrays conscious motivation due to influence by the surrounding environment. Unconscious motivation cannot be ruled out because positive thoughts determine the actions and performance that I choose to take.

Another theory of motivation is Frederick Winslow Taylor’s theory of motivation. Taylor takes a different route by breaking down goals and objectives in small portions. Taylor states that people generally have a hard time achieving their objectives (Miner, 2008). This is credited to the fact that most of the objectives are long term oriented. It is much more difficult to achieve long term objectives due to the monotony and boredom that may come with the trade. Choosing to get a degree in psychology takes a period of three to four years. This type of goal is thus classified under a long term goal making it harder to achieve. There are a number of factors that make students drop out of college. Taylor mentions that people have an easier time performing their tasks when there divided into sub tasks (Forgas & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, 2006). This form of motivation is ideal for someone in my position and thus acts as a source of reference. Since it is not advised to take a break from college, a student can concentrate on the selected semester courses that are of interest to them. As a psychologist student, I have chosen to focus on each course keenly so that I can maximize on my score. This acts as a source of motivation in that I can concentrate on three months as opposed to four years. Motivation should be applied by a person who portrays features that an individual aspires to be like (Hoffmann, 2007). Agents of motivation can come in different forms depending on the surrounding environment. Some of the people I get motivation from are my parents, teachers, influential figures and pioneer psychologists. This type of motivation is ideal in that I am able to live by the principles that are set by my mentors.

Conclusion

Motivating factors improve the performance of people who receive motivation on a regular basis. It is difficult to be motivated by factors that do not portray positive outcomes. People require motivation on a regular basis due to the challenges that are experienced on a daily basis. A majority of people around the world apply the motivation theories without even knowing about their existence. This provides evidence of the effectiveness of the motivational theories. As a student, I face a number of hardships that may distract me from achieving my goals. The use of unconscious motivation puts me back on track by acting as a source of inspiration for me. My choice to acquire a psychology degree is one of the most significant choices of my life. This is categorized under the long term goals and requires an immense amount of motivation so that I graduate with honors. Being able to use my degree will impact not only on my life but on the lives of the entire society. Through my degree I will be able to give back to the community by using my talent to help others. One of the advantages that come with this is the idea that I will one day become a source of motivation for the younger generation to come.

References

Beck, R. C. R. C. (2004). Motivation: Theories and principles. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Education.

Forgas, J. P., & Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology. (2006). Social motivation: Conscious and unconscious processes ; [the Sydney Symposium of Social Psychology, volume 6]. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press

Hoffmann, S. (2007). Classical Motivation Theories – Similarities and Differences between them. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH.

Miner, J. B. (2008). Organizational behavior 5: From unconscious motivation to role-motivated leadership. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe.

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Benefits of Open Adoption

Adoption is a sensitive topic. Biological parents may give up their children for different reasons, for the state may take children away from their parents when they find it necessary. The main reason why children are separated from their parents is when their parents can no longer care for them adequately or when they have suffered some form of abuse while with their parents. In any case, giving up or losing a child is often a painful process for a parent. These children still need a loving home and parents to care for them, which is where adoption comes in. individuals or couples who feel the desire to adopt a child goes through official processes where they are vetted. If approved, they choose which child or children they would like to adopt. Millions of children have found loving homes in their adoptive families, a happy ending to often difficult situations. Despite the many positives of adoption, one primary concern is the grief process that both birth parents and children experience after the adoption is complete.

The New York Times published a story on the grief and pain around adoption. Steve Inskeep, the author of the story, was adopted fifty years ago. He was happy with his new parents and grew up to be a responsible adult, and he adopted a child as well. During the adoption process for his daughter, the social workers told him that the child might have questions about her birth parents. The child was from China, and it was natural that she would want to know more about her origins when she was older (Inskeep 1). This information brought up similar feelings that Steve had while growing up. At the back of his mind, he always wondered who his birth parents had been and why they had given him up for adoption. However, at that time, many states In the US kept adoption records a secret, reasoning that it would be best for all parties involved. For Steve, this secrecy gnawed at him and made him want to know his story even more.

Steve’s story is not unique. Naturally, any child would want to know who their birth parents were, no matter how happy they are with their adoptive parents. Steve had accepted the fact that he would never know anything about his birth parents as most states, including Indiana, where he was adopted, had a closed adoption policy. His daughter’s story inspired him to keep trying, and he got a break when Indiana changed its adoption law and allowed adoption parties to obtain information about each other. Steve explains that he would never want his daughter kept in the dark as he was about her birth parents. He knows from personal experience how lost he felt, not knowing his birth story. He has met many people whose lives were severely affected by their adoption and struggled to come to terms with their situation. Every child deserves to know their birth story if they wish; it helps with their feelings of self-identity. For those children who wonder why their birth parents abandoned them, learning more about their birth situation would help them resolve their issues and understand what happened.

Many birth mothers struggle to give up their children for adoption, though they may be forced to do so due to unavoidable circumstances. Just like Steve, not knowing where their children is a difficult situation for birth mothers. Closed adoption rules further complicate the situation as mothers have no way of comforting themselves with the idea that they made the right decision giving up their children. Lisa Krahn and Richard Sullivan explore how open adoptions reduce the grief that birth mothers experience letting go of their children. The process of giving up parental rights is a significant psychological burden on birth parents (Krahn & Sullivan 29). These parents then have to go through the process of mourning their child who is still alive. They wonder if they made the rights decision if their child would hate them for their decision, and who their child might grow up to be. Open adoptions make the grieving process easier, knowing that they can see their child or find out about them when they choose to. Open adoption leaves a channel of connection open, giving birth parents the comfort of knowing where their child is and how they are doing.

Many birth mothers who give up their children for adoption do so because they know they cannot care for their children as they would like. Most of these mothers tend to be very young and choose adoption as the best way to give their children a better life. Lynn Clutter explored the benefits of open adoption for mothers in their twenties who give up their children for adoption. The study involved fifteen women giving their opinions on the benefits of open adoption. All of the women interviewed agreed that giving up the children was a painful and difficult decision, but they knew it was the best choice they could make (Clutter 349). However, open adoption gave them comfort, knowing they could see their children and the better life they lived after adoption. The birth mothers reported that they knew their stressful situations meant that they could not afford their children the lives they deserved, and adoption would give them better opportunities. Open adoption eased their grief.

To summarize, open adoption goes a long way in easing the grief of birth mothers and adoptees in adoption. Giving up a child is never easy, and birth parents will likely struggle with guilt for the rest of their lives. Adopted children also have questions about their birth parents and why they were given up. If left unanswered, these questions could cause a lot of personal grief and turmoil in the adoptee. Open adoption eases both birth parents’ and adoptees’ grief and peace of mind. Birth parents get the comfort of knowing how their children and doing, and adoptees learn about their adoption story, giving them closure. Open adoption has many benefits for all parties involved.

Works Cited

Clutter, Lynn B. “Open adoption placement by birth mothers in their twenties.” MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing 42.6 (2017): 345-351.

Inskeep, Steve. “For 50 Years, I Was Denied The Story of My Birth.” The New York Times. 26 March 2021. www.nytimes.com/2021/03/26/opinion/closed-adoption-laws.htmlKrahn, Lisa, and Richard Sullivan. “Grief & loss resolution among birth mothers in open adoption.” Canadian Social Work Review/Revue canadienne de service social 32.1-2 (2015): 27-48.

Adult Children of Alcoholics

Dear Mr.

Please accept the following as the final draft of my research project on Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACOAs). A significant amount of information on this topic has been generated over the last twenty years. According to the literature, the research is still in its infancy, and there is more work to be completed. Throughout the research and writing process, I gained a good deal of insight and knowledge regarding ACOAs and have presented information in my research paper on the following topics:

Alcoholism and alcohol consumption in the United StatesCharacteristics of ACOAs

Family relationships in alcoholic families

Symptoms of ACOAs

Treatment for ACOAs

In conducting my research for this project, I found several valuable books on ACOAs. I supplemented the information from the books with various journal articles and internet resources. By the end of the research process, I realized I had gathered more information than I could realistically use for this project.

I would like to thank you for your support and encouragement throughout this process. I appreciated the opportunity to build up to the final project by working through the smaller projects you assigned throughout the semester. Over the course of the semester, I feel I have been able to carefully evaluate sources of information and construct a thorough report on ACOAs. Please feel free to contact me at (302) 555-5555 if you have any questions regarding my research project.

SincerelyTable of Contents

Letter of Transmittalii

List of Figuresiv

Abstractv

Alcoholism1

Alcohol Consumption in the United States1

Definition of Alcoholism1

Adult Children of Alcoholics2

Definition2

History of the ACOA Movement3

Characteristics of ACOAs4

Family Relationships6

Family Systems6

Family Roles8

Symptoms8

Depression9

Anxiety9

Alcoholism10

Eating Disorders11

Treatment11

Self-Help Groups12

Individual/Group Therapy13

Future Prospects14

References15

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………16

Abstract

Alcoholism is a family disease that affects every member of the family. Within alcoholic family systems, children often take on various roles and characteristics that allow them to survive while maintaining the dysfunction in the family. Without intervention or treatment, children often carry these negative roles and characteristics into adulthood, only to find that they no longer provide the same benefit they did in childhood. As a result, many adult children of alcoholics (ACOAs) develop symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem, or they may develop compulsive behaviors such as alcoholism and eating disorders. Fortunately, therapy has proved very successful at helping ACOAs who are trying to heal themselves and move on with their adult lives.

Adult Children of Alcoholics

Alcoholism

Alcohol consumption in the United States

Throughout history, alcohol has played a major role in the lives of Americans. While the amount of alcohol consumed has increased and decreased over time, it has remained a constant in society. Even the enactment of Prohibition in the early 1900s failed to eradicate alcohol consumption completely. After Prohibition was repealed in the 1930s, alcohol consumption increased rapidly from 1935 to 1945. Another substantial increase in alcohol use was experienced in the 1970s, which was accompanied by a decrease in the minimum legal drinking age (Rhoden & Robinson, 2009, p. 42). According to Rhoden & Robinson (2009), a slight reversal of alcohol consumption trends was witnessed in the early 1980s, along with the return of the minimum legal drinking age to twenty-one (p. 45). More recently, The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence reported that “from 2006-2007, annual per capita consumption of alcohol in the US decreased 0.5 percent to 2.18 gallons; per capita consumption in 2007[was] second only to 1995 in being the lowest in 35 years” (Alcoholism, 2008, Statistics section, para. 1).

Definition of alcoholism

In American culture, drinking alcohol in moderation is a socially acceptable way to celebrate, relax and unwind. The alcoholic beverage industry and the media support this notion through advertising that glamorizes alcohol consumption. Additionally, for many Americans, drinking is tied to family traditions. Alcohol is often used during holiday celebrations and to commemorate religious occasions. Unfortunately, attention is not always given to the harmful effects alcohol can have on a person. Due to various biological and environmental factors, many people do not enjoy alcohol in moderation. A report from the National Council on Alcohol and Drug Dependence suggests that while two-thirds of the population engages in the consumption of alcohol, half of the total amount of alcohol is consumed by only 10 percent of the population (Alcoholism, 2008, Statistics section, para. 1). In fact, the 2007 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse reported that 8.2 million Americans were dependent on alcohol (Office of Applied Studies [OAS], 2008, para. 7). Alcohol dependency is a component of alcoholism, which can be defined as:

A chronic condition characterized by the habitual consumption of alcoholicbeverages to such an extent that it impairs physical or mental health and interferes with the activities of daily living; it may be progressive in nature and potentially fatal when producing pathological changes in organs. (Alcoholism, 2008, Introduction section, para. 1)

As the definition implies, alcoholism has devastating effects on many aspects of one’s life. It is important to recognize that alcoholics do not live in seclusion and that their behaviors have a profound impact on the people surrounding them, even on their adult children.

Adult Children of Alcoholics

Definition

When a child has an alcoholic parent, the child grows up in a dysfunctional environment. This experience can potentially have a negative effect on a child throughout his lifespan. Adults who are coping with issues resulting from parental alcoholism are known as Adult Children of Alcoholics (ACOAs). An ACOA can be defined as an adult suffering post-family effects of alcoholism (Ruben, 2008, p. 6). Ruben (2008) further describes the ACOA as “an adult who is trapped in the fears and reactions of a child, and a child who was forced to be an adult without going through the natural stages that result in a healthy adult” (p. 8). As this definition suggests, an ACOA’s social, emotional and possibly physical development may have been hampered as a result of being raised in an alcoholic household. Without some type of intervention, it is likely the negative characteristics and behavior patterns from childhood will carry forward into adulthood (Woititz, 1983, p. 50); luckily, therapy has proven effective at helping ACOAs heal themselves and move on with their adult lives.

History of the ACOA movement

In American society, the subject of alcoholism has been examined from many different points of view. From a moralistic perspective, people engaging in the abuse of alcohol are thought to be of weak character and lacking will power. From a medical perspective, alcoholism came to be understood as a disease process. In 1966, the American Medical Association accepted a resolution stating, “alcoholism is recognized as a serious major health problem throughout the land; therefore be it resolved, that the American Medical Association identifies alcoholism as a complex disease and as such recognizes that the medical components are medicines’ responsibility” (Black, 2009, p. 9). While the resolution was passed in 1966, according to Rhoden and Robinson (2009), it was not until the late 1980s that the majority of the population accepted alcoholism as a disease (p. 13). Meanwhile, in the 1970s, researchers and clinicians in the alcohol treatment field began to treat alcoholism as a disease reaching beyond the alcoholic.

In the mid-1970s, Janet Woititz, author of Adult Children of Alcoholics, was working on her doctoral dissertation on self-esteem in children of alcoholics. Through her research and her own family’s experience living with an alcoholic husband and father, Ms. Woititz began to consider the impact of alcoholism on the entire family unit. At the time, she was involved with Al-Anon, a self-help support group for friends and family members of alcoholics. She realized that some members of the group were having difficulty relating to the discussions because they were not currently living with someone actively involved in alcoholism. Through the meetings, she learned many members were dealing with issues from their childhood stemming from parental alcohol abuse.

In the 1980s, Ms. Woitiz began a group specifically for ACOAs. With the information gained from two years of managing the ACOA group, Ms. Woititz wrote the bookAdult Children of Alcoholicsin which she describes the issues and difficulties experienced by ACOAs. More and more interest on this topic was generated, and a proliferation of self-help books and group meetings became available. At the same time, other researchers and clinicians were involved in the birth of the ACOA movement. While the movement gained much support, it also gained its share of detractors. According to Black (2009), some complained the ACOA movement was an excuse to shirk responsibility for one’s behavior (p. 70). Fortunately, the movement has weathered such criticism. During a lecture on children of alcoholics,Woititz (1983) eloquently stated, “The child of an alcoholic has no age. The same things hold true if you are 5 or 55” (p. xiii).

Characteristics of ACOAs

ACOAs comprise a large and diverse segment of the population in the United States. One study suggested up to 22 million adults in this country were reared in a family with at least one alcoholic parent (Sher, 2009, para. 4). Because ACOAs are such a diverse group, researchers caution against grouping ACOAs in one broad category. Sher (2009) asserted that the difficulty in making generalizations about ACOAs stems from the fact that alcoholics are themselves diverse, thereby creating very different home environments for their children. As a result, each ACOA likely acquires different coping and behavior styles that carry over into adulthood (para. 5). With this in mind, gleaning information from clinicians who have worked directly with ACOAs is crucial. In her book, Adult Children of Alcoholics,Woititz(1983) outlined13 characteristics of ACOAs she found in common among members of her ACOA group (p. 22). These characteristics may not apply to all ACOAs; however, many of these characteristics continue to appear in books and journal articles on the subject

As with other types of dysfunctional families, many ACOAs grew up in chaotic, stressful households. Children in alcoholic and other dysfunctional families learn to obey the following rules as a means of survival: do not talk, do not trust, do not feel, do not think, and do not ask questions (Black, 2009, p. 13; Copans, 2009, p. 21; Rhoden & Robinson, 2009, p. 41). These rules allow the family to continue functioning without addressing the alcoholism.

Family Relationships

Family systems

One way to conceptualize alcoholism as a family disease is to view the disease from a family systems perspective. Family systems theory was derived from general systems theory, which can be described asa way of thinking about the world in which objects are interrelated with one another (Rhoden & Robinson, 2009, p. 3). Just as computers, biology and medicine can each be regarded as integrated systems, so can families. From the family systems perspective, the family is viewed as a unit or system rather than a group of individual members. Attention is given to the functioning and interactional dynamics within the family system.

Included in the dynamics of the family system are subsystems, which can be composed of a parental subsystem and a sibling subsystem. Additionally, alliances and coalitions can be formed within the family system. An alliance can be defined as a subsystem of two or more family members based on a common interest. A coalition, on the other hand, can be viewed as a triangular relationship where one family member sides with another family member against a third member (Rhoden & Robinson, 2009, p. 45). These subsystems can be dissolved and recreated depending upon the situation the family is facing. The subsystems include the parental subsystem, the sibling subsystem and the subsystems existing between parents and children. All together, these subsystems create the dynamics that play into the functioning of the family system.

In addition to the attention given to the family system itself, attention is also given to how the family interacts and relates with the larger and broader systems outside of the family, such as community, work, school and church (Sharf, 2009, p. 56). When a parent drinks, the behavior affects every member of the household and how the members relate to those beyond the boundaries of the family system. These effects occur through mutual influence, which stresses that whatever happens to one part of the family system affects every other member of that system (Rhoden & Robinson, 2009, p. 62). Applying a . . .

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References

Alcoholism and alcohol-related problems. (2008, January). Retrieved from http://www.ncadd.org/facts/problems.html

Black, C. (2009). Double duty: Dual dynamics within the chemically dependent home. New York: Ballantine Books.

Copans, S. (2009). The invisible family member: Children in families with alcohol abuse. In L. Combrinck-Graham (Ed.), Children in family contexts: Perspectives on treatment (pp. 277-298). New York: Guilford Press.

Kingree, J.B., & Thompson, M. (2010, March). A test with adult children of alcoholics with personal substance abuse problems. American Journal of Psychology, 28(3), 325. doi:10.1037/a0016248/93472394ajp099

Office of Applied Studies. (2008, March 9). Substance abuse and mental health statistics. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/oas.html

Rhoden, J.L., & Robinson, B.E. (2009). Working with children of alcoholics: The practitioner’s handbook. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ruben, D.H. (2008). Treating adult children of alcoholics: A behavioral approach. New York: Academic Press.

Sharf, R.S. (2009). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling: Concepts and cases.NewYork: Brooks/Cole.

Sher, K. (2009). Psychological characteristics of children of alcoholics. Alcohol Health and Research World, 21(3), 247. Retrieved from CINAHL Premier database.

Woititz, J.G. (1983). Adult children of alcoholics. Florida: Health Communications, Inc.

MOTIVATING FACTORS TO STUDYING PHYSIO-THERAPY

Being a physiotherapist has always been a desire since my dad developed high blood pressure. He was advised to be exercising because lack of exercise was one of the reasons why the high blood pressure was present in his body. from the time he began exercising I could not be left out because I was his child and he loved me so much. He had already suffered a lot and was not willing to extend his suffering by having me share in his problems when I grew up. Therefore he decided that I had to exercise with him. however, during the time of the exercises, I realized I had a passion for becoming a medical doctor and therefore I did not know how to exercise that is athletics could merge with medicine. Therefore I kept on researching more and with time I got to know that it is possible to be a physical therapist. In my school, I would be the person to help those who got hurt due to their exercises and especially in football most of the friendly matches.

I got the interest to help more in the sporting activities and I even volunteered with organizations that were focused on making sure that there was someone to look after those who got hurt during physical activities. Therefore this is how my interest grew. It was, even more, when I realized that my dad got healed completely after continued exercise as the doctor had advised him. I decided to take the same route because even though it has many other types of treatment physical fitness is one of the concerns and this plays a significant role. Therefore my friends at school and my family at home were the major motivating factors towards my desire to study physiotherapy.