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Climate change annotated bibliography

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Climate change annotated bibliography

Cavicchioli, Ricardo, et al. “Scientists’ warning to humanity: microorganisms and climate change.” Nature Reviews Microbiology 17.9 (2019): 569-586.

This article talks about the Anthropocene, in which we live right now, and how climate change is affecting most life in the World. It also talks of how microorganisms back up the survival of higher trophic forms of life. To comprehend how a human being and other living creatures on Earth can endure the anthropogenic climate change, the article says it is essential to combine microbial ‘unseen majority’ understanding. It suggests that we ought to study not only the way microorganisms impact climate change (comprising of consumption and production of greenhouse fumes) but moreover exactly the way they it will be impacted by change in climate and extra-mankind doings. This article is well thought out because it shows the main role and global significance of microorganisms regarding the biology of climate change. Additionally, it places humanity on warning that the climate change impact will hinge heavily on microorganisms responses, which are crucial for attaining a sustainable environmental future.

Clayton, Susan, and Bryan T. Karazsia. “Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 69 (2020): 101434.

In author of this journal talks about how there exist cumulative focus to the destructive emotional reactions linked with climate change awareness. The journal displays three readings developing an anxiety climate change scale. In the first reading, the scale was validated and developed in a 197MTurk sample. It states that the experimental factor scrutiny of their item pool discovered a structure of four-factors, with cognitive-emotional damage, behavioral engagement, functional damage, and experience evolving as distinctive factors. Functional impairment and Cognitive-emotional damage were well-thought-out to constitute anxiety of climate change subscales; alongside behavioral commitment, all of them were linked up to experience and also to emotions that were harmful. Neither climate change nervousness nor anxiety and depression generally were linked to behavioral commitment.

The second study of the journal duplicated the factor structure and also the correlation pattern in a subsequent 199MTurk sample. The journal’s third study scrutinized the connection between adaptation responses and climate change nervousness in the 217 samples and tried if the anxiety of climate change marks could be impacted through the climate change framing of a message. I think this journal is credible because, in its outcome, it proposes that anxiety in climate change isn’t rare, particularly amongst younger grown-ups; and that there worry may be distinguished from a more severe impact on someone’s life; the journal also says that anxiety of change in climate is connected with emotions however not behavioral reactions to changes in climate.

Hallegatte, Stephane, and Julie Rozenberg. “Climate change through a poverty lens.” Nature Climate Change 7.4 (2017): 250-256.

This Study breaks down and scrutiny of the economic influence of climate change, typically putting in mind regional or national economies and evaluates its effect on macroeconomic combinations like the (GDP) gross domestic product. The study hence doesn’t examine the distributional effects of climate change inside states or the poverty impacts. This Perspective targets to narrow this gap and offer a climate change assessment impacts at the domestic level to examine the climate change consequences for poverty and also poor persons. The study does it by joining the physical impacts assessments of climate change in numerous sectors with surveys of households. To be precise, it highlights how inclusive and rapid growth can decrease the future effects of climate alteration on poverty..Hsiang, Solomon, et al. “Estimating economic damage from climate change in the United States.” Science 356.6345 (2017): 1362-1369.

This paper says that approximations of change in climate destruction are essential to the plan of climate policies. The paper seeks to cultivate an architecture that is flexible for computing destructions that incorporates climate science, process models, and econometric analyses. The paper utilizes this method to make probabilistic, empirically, and spatially clear obtained evaluations of destruction economically in the U.S from an alteration in the climate. The joint marketplace value and non-market destruction through scrutinized sectors—, crime, agriculture, energy, coastal storms, labor, mankind and mortality—rises four times more in universal mean temperature, pricing approximately 1.3% of GDP per +1.1°C averagely. The author says that threat is dispersed unequally through localities, producing a large value transfer westward and northward that raises economic unfairness. The author says that by the latest years of 21st century, the counties third poorest are estimated to experience disruption that ranges between 3and 17% of county revenue (89% chance) beneath business-as-usual releases.

Ray, Deepak K., et al. “Climate change has likely already affected global food production.” PloS one 14.5 (2019): e0217148

This article seeks to analyze how to crop productions are anticipated to decline under the future climate situations and that the latest research proposes that productions have by now been impacted. However, the article says that current effects on crop diversity sub nationally and consequences for food security are still not clear. It talks of how they made linear regression relations utilizing the climate and reported crop information to evaluate the possible impact of change in climate on the products of the best eight worldwide crops– maize, cassava, sugarcane ,rice, barley, oil, wheat, soybean, and sorghum, at ~20,000 political units. It was figured out the influence of universal change in climate on harvests of diverse products from trends in climate varied from -3.4% (soybean) to 13.5% (oil palm). It was found out that the outcome displays that influences are generally undesirable in Australia, parts of Europe, and Southern Africa however largely encouraging inside Latin America. In Central and Northern America plus Asia, impacts are mixed up. This article is reliable because it shows how in about half of food-insecure nations, expected caloric accessibility decrease and also how results propose that climate change has by now impacted food of production globally.

Seidl, Rupert, et al. “Forest disturbances under climate change.” Nature climate change 7.6 (2017): 395-402.

The author seeks to elaborate on the way disturbances of forests are delicate to climate. The article talks of how our comprehension of disturbance aspects in reaction to changes in climate stays to be incomplete, specifically regarding patterns of large-scale, dampening feedbacks and interaction effects. The author offers a global synthesis of change on climate impacts on vital abiotic (drought, wind fire, ice, and snow) and biotic (pathogens and insects) disruption agents. The author says that drier and warmer conditions specifically are a catalyst for fire, insect, and drought disturbances, whereas wetter and warmer surroundings escalate disturbances from pathogens and wind. Widespread connections amongst agents have a higher chance to intensify disturbances, whereas indirect climate impacts like changes in vegetation can diminish long-term disruption sensitivities to climate. The author concludes that both society and ecosystems ought to be equipped for an increasingly troubled future of the forests.

Works cited

Cavicchioli, Ricardo, et al. “Scientists’ warning to humanity: microorganisms and climate change.” Nature Reviews Microbiology 17.9 (2019): 569-586.

Clayton, Susan, and Bryan T. Karazsia. “Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 69 (2020): 101434.

Hallegatte, Stephane, and Julie Rozenberg. “Climate change through a poverty lens.” Nature Climate Change 7.4 (2017): 250-256.

Hsiang, Solomon, et al. “Estimating economic damage from climate change in the United States.” Science 356.6345 (2017): 1362-1369.

Ray, Deepak K., et al. “Climate change has likely already affected global food production.” PloS one 14.5 (2019): e0217148

Seidl, Rupert, et al. “Forest disturbances under climate change.” Nature climate change 7.6 (2017): 395-402.

Climate Change as A Current Issue

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Introduction

Climate change is one of the controversial topics in existences. Climate change can as well be referred to as global warming. Climate change is a term used to describe weather phenomena that involves an increase in the temperature of the global environment. It is most times used interchangeably with the term ‘global warming’ but they are very different. Science communicators prefer to use climate change because it not only includes the increasing global temperatures but is also about the effects of climate caused by this increase such as the rise of sea levels, mass loss of ice in Greenland, Antarctica, the Arctic and mountain glaciers, changes in plant and flower booming and other extreme events of weather. While different natural phenomena can affect the climate, scientists agree that global warming and the resultant effect on the climate is largely a result of human activity.

Currently, climate change is a subject of political controversy, especially in the USA. Scientists have come up with conflicting evidence for the support and for the denial of the existence of climate change. However, the growing clarity and consensus make it difficult to ignore the fact that climate change is definitely real. Skeptics have various reasons for their skepticism but rather than become skeptical, it is important to embrace the challenge and find out ways on how to combat climate change. Climate change is real but there but despite the various opposing positions to this claim and there measures to help combat the issue.

Arguments Climate Change Does Not Exist

The first counter argument is that there have been no significant and prolonged temperature changes ever since 1997. According to the scientists who argue against the existence of climate change, the rise in temperature began in 1975 up until 1997 and since then the temperature has been flat. However, had there been no rise in temperature changes, ice caps and glaciers would not have melted. For the second argument, the skeptics of climate change have argued that not enough historical data is available to prove climate change. They point out to a recent gathering of 31,000 researchers in the environmental science field in which consensus was not reached. However, the scientific consensus is clear in the reports of the Integrated Panel on Climate Change that was created by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Program to evaluate matters of climate change. Finally, that Arctic ice has increased by 50% since 2012 is a counterclaim to the claim that climate change has caused the melting of ice caps and shrinking of glaciers. Some scientists have gone ahead to claim that global warming does not cause Arctic ice to melt. (Whitmarsh, 2011).

Claims on the issue of climate change

Human activities cause climatic change, and activities such as deforestation, greenhouse farming, burning of fossils and wood to produce fuel have ended up causing global warming. When substances are burnt to release energy, gases are emitted which pollute the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the gases emitted from the burning of fossil fuel. Australia is among the world largest CO2 producers.

The first claim is that climate change exists because of the rise in sea levels. Sea levels have risen in most parts of the world because of the melting of ice caps and glaciers and the changes of gases contained within large water bodies. Also, thermal expansion due to the warming of the ocean has resulted in a rise in sea levels. Research findings indicate that the global mean sea levels have risen two times as compared to the 20th-century trend of 1.6mm per year. In the past century, there was a rise in the levels of the global sea by approximately 6.7 inches.

The second argument is that climate change exists because there has been a rise in the average temperature of the earth. For the past half of the century, global temperature has continued to rise. One of the reasons for this rise in temperatures has been the increase in greenhouse gas emissions that has, in turn, increased the greenhouse effect which has resulted in the rise of temperatures. The burning of fossil fuels results in the emission of these greenhouse gases. According to findings from scientists, temperatures rose strongly in the 70s before there was a lull in the 90s and then a rising pattern again in the 2000s (“Is Global Warming Real? Top 5 Arguments in Favor and Against it – Conserve Energy Future,” 2016).

Thirdly, the shrinking of glaciers is a reason to claim the existence of climate change. Glaciers, especially those in mountain ranges like Greenland and Antarctica, are shrinking. This is because gases that helped to maintain temperatures have reduced and also, there have been changes in the climate of regions. Research evidence from a study by NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment indicate Greenland lost between 36 to 60 cubic miles of ice yearly from 2000 to 2006 (“Is Global Warming Real? Top 5 Arguments in Favor and Against it – Conserve Energy Future,” 2016). Indeed, there exist a change in climate from the previous years to what is being experienced now.

Deforestation as One of Key Causes of Climate Change

Trees aid in locking up Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere where they take up CO2 and release oxygen to the atmosphere which is then used by animals and humans during breathing. Cutting down trees means that carbon dioxide is retained in the atmosphere which in turn causes global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and this reduces CO2 Levels in the atmosphere, which results in long-term fluctuation of this gas (Hunt, C. A. G. 2011).

Carbon dioxide is a heat absorbing gas which then absorbs the heat meant to go back to space and later releases it to the atmosphere causing a rise in temperature thus global warming. The process of trees using up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is called carbon “sink” where deforestation hinders the effectiveness of this activity. Per every two acres of tropical forests, it is believed that 350 metric tons of carbon are stored thus cutting down an acre at once implies 180 metric tons of carbon dioxide gas is released to the atmosphere which is dangerous (Hunt, C. A. G. 2011).

How Climatic Change Comes About

Trees, directly and indirectly, affect the earth’s temperature which brings about a global warming case. Trees are responsible for climatic change and when cut down they impact negatively on climatic change. Trees aid in the drawing up water from the earth soil and releasing it into the environment, that is the atmosphere. This is commonly referred to as the water cycle where cutting down trees interrupts the water cycle. Since trees have been cut down thus the failure to draw water from the soil making the atmosphere dry. In most cases when you go to deserted places, areas where trees are few and turning centers you will always find the humidity level to below (Grover, V. I. 2009). In tropical areas where there is more tress, there are high levels of moisture in the atmosphere thus low and favorable temperature conditions for human living. When the environment is less humid it leads to an increase in the atmosphere’s temperature. Cutting down trees without replacement aids in the long-term climatic change such as desertification characterized by temperatures above 26 degrees Celsius.

Long-term effects of deforestation are felt when there is no carbon intake and the levels in the atmosphere increase causing a rise in temperature. The temperature of the earth mainly comes from heat due to the sun, where the level of temperature is between heat from the sun and the one bouncing back into space. Albedo is a process is affected by deforestation. Albedo refers to the fraction of electromagnetic radiations reflected by a body or surface according to the dictionary. Weather scientists refer the albedo process to the event in which radiations from the sun are reflected back into space which in turn reduced temperatures in the atmosphere. In most cases, radiations from the sun are always reflected by snow surfaces. Cutting down trees leads to reduced moisture which affects snow formation thus less of the sun’s radiations are reflected in space. When most of the radiations are absorbed in the atmosphere there results in warming which after a period of time becomes global warming. General Circulation Models (GCM’s) have explained that deforestation leads to a slower albedo rate by the land (Hunt, C. A. G. 2011).

Lastly, industries aid in global warming where gases and other fuels are burnt to produce energy where in this process Carbon dioxide and other gases are released into the atmosphere. Also, in industries such as the paper industry, petrochemical industry and metal industries, there are gases emitted such as nitrogen, methane and carbon gases. Humans engaging in greenhouses for food production also leads to climatic change where there are gases emitted in this type of farming. The gases include methane, chlorofluorocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, which absorb heat from the space and later release to the atmosphere resulting in global warming. Cattle ranching and livestock farming is another source of greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels releases carbon and nitrogen oxides which also contribute to global warming.

Natural induced climate change

Other than the human activities, there are natural earth cycles that also result in climate change. Solar irradiance is one such natural activity. The sun being an important energy source that drives the climatic system, changes in its output will definitely result in climate change. Research shows that solar variability has contributed to past climatic changes. For example, the Little Ice Age of between 1650 and 1850 is thought to have been triggered by a reduction in solar activity, when Greenland was separated by ice from 1410 to 1720s and glaciers increased in the Alps. However, the current global warming cannot be evidenced by changes in the sun energy (“Climate change causes: A blanket around the Earth,” 2018).

Effects of Climate Change

The effects of climate change are adverse and this calls for measures to control the situation. In the USA for example, hotter summers and milder winters have been experienced. This in turn has resulted in a direct impact on food crops and the survival of animals. Some species of animals are likely to go extinct due to unbearable climatic conditions. When large forests are destroyed local communities and species that rely on them are likely to suffer. Droughts and floods are likely to increase as well.

It is feedback when trees are cut down they cause global warming, and this climate change later destroys other trees or prevents fast plant growth. The first effect of global warming is on the forests is that increased temperatures in the atmosphere will lead to a slow growth rate of trees. Also, heating up of the atmosphere in some environments mostly leads to shifting of the geographical habitat of some tree species thus depreciating forests coverage in the affected regions. Specific tree species grow in specific conditions; an example is the mahogany tree which grows in tropical conditions thus if the region’s conditions are no longer favorable the species might end up being extinct in the region reducing the population (United States. 1989). Cactus is known to grow in arid and semi-arid regions thus global warming in a specific region will lead to this type of species being common in the arid region.

Climate change affects food availability for both plants and animals. Global warming increases the risk of drought and dry season in some areas and flooding and heavy rainfall in the alternate areas. The risk of drought implies that there will be less plant growth when such season come. Drought makes it hard for humans since it in turn cause decrease in food availability (Grover, V. I. 2009), thus cases of starvation and malnutrition in areas such as the Saharan region. Lastly, global warming causes flooding which in turn causes soil erosion making the affected areas to have less soil nutrients. At the oceans, warm currents due to global warming build up slowly giving time form the storm formation and when they make a landfall they are characterized by heavy rainfall. Scientists say that climate change may result in intensified storms which can cause floods due to the record rainfall (United States. 1989).

Other effects of global warming include ocean acidification due to an increase in the concentration of gases in the atmosphere. Change in ecosystems since animals and other creatures will migrate to other regions that favor them compared to the harsh conditions in the drought region (Grover, V. I. 2009). Reduced crop production which will, in turn, affect food availability which will result in migration by humans. Human activities lead to global warming which then affects their general health since drought brings issues such as lack of food and water scarcity which may long-term lead to malnutrition. Drought also leads to the death of wildlife and wildlife diseases because of unfavorable conditions characterized by high temperatures, less food and lack of enough water.

How to combat climate Change

Climate change is not just a government’s issue. Every individual citizen in every corner of the world has a responsibility to combat climate change as well. There are numerous ways that climate change can be combatted. People should reduce emissions by embracing alternatives to driving like cycling or sharing a car with someone else so as to reduce the amount of harmful gases emitted. Energy saving by not leaving devices on standby will help salvage the situation as well. If people consume less energy and time, then energy usage will reduce. A switch to using LED light bulbs for example, is a great way to reduce energy usage. If people learn to reuse, reduce wastage and recycle half of the garbage produced at home will reduce. Also, a reduction in meat processed food consumption will help and finally, promoting renewable energy by the government will help. Governments need to control the climate pollutants such as carbon dioxide as well by coming up with national policies and regulations that will fasten the fight against climate change within a short while (Thompson, 2007).

Many people are less aware of the long-term effects of deforestation such as global warming, drought, and loss of species living in the forest. To help solve the problem the first thing is to educate on the dangers and disadvantages that come with deforestation as a human activity.. Advocating for reforestation is the best way to solve deforestation since there is the need to cut down forest then replanting is the best thing to do. When one cuts tone tree then he or she needs to plant two, this should be a policy in all the regions. (Wolvekamp, P. 1999). Law and regulations need to be in place which they will advocate for replanting trees once one has the permit to cut down one and in failing to abide by the rules, there should be huge fines and consequences that will make people have no choice. Also, laws on industries emitting harmful gases should be in place as well as limiting production of cars emitting exhaust fumes.

Green business should be the way to go by everyone where it encourages reusing and recycling products. Greenways of manufacturing and using minimal the resources possible can help reduce the rate of deforestation. Recycling wood used in fires can be through using the charcoal produced for fuel production, recycling industrial gases as well will help reduce the rate at which climate changes. Plastics and paper can be recycled save trees and reduction of single-use plastics (Webster et al, 2014). People should have the option of using recycled paper to reduce the demand of new products

Also, technology should be on the lookout to come up with new ways to expand the roads, for example, investing in underground roads and railway tunnels rather than clearing forested land for expansion. Community forestry should be encouraged where schools, government, and organizations team up to protect their local forests by advocating for conservation (Wolvekamp, P. 1999). Community forestry also entails planting trees in areas left bare to make the environment sustainable. Schools also need to be planting trees during ceremonies, sports days and on the worlds environmental day to increase the number of trees in their environment.

Human activity takes up the greater percentage of activities that result in climate change. It is the responsibility of everybody to ensure that they reduce the amount of toxic gas they emit in the environment and that is why it is important to regularly calculate one’s carbon footprint. Despite challenges like uncontrollable harmful human behavior, the world has joined hands to fight global warming and that is why treaties such as the Paris Agreement were created (“Climate change explained | OVO Energy,” n.d.).

Things to Note

The Amazon forests produce about 20% of the oxygen in the world thus we need to protect this forests and other forests to maintain current oxygen levels.Climatic change may be a threat to biodiversity as over 25000 species may go extinct in the next 100 years if deforestation continue to increase. Among the endangered plants that may go extinct if deforestation rates continue to increase are Rafflesia and Orchids (Wolvekamp, P. 1999).

The Amazon, Cerrado, Eastern Australia, Congo Basin, Borneo, Greater Mekong, New Guinea, Sumatra, Eastern Africa, Atlantic Forest and Choco-Darien are among the top ten forests that are under the danger of deforestation. This forests are home to over 50% of the animal species and need to be protected (Owens, C. 1999).

Conclusion

To conclude, the issue of climate change is real and no matter the number of rebuttals from the skeptics, accepting and embracing the challenge will help combat the situation before it gets to irredeemable levels. Those not in support of the existence of climate change could have evidence to support their claims but also the evidence from scientific bodies about the realness of the issue should be taken with the seriousness it deserves. If everyone takes measures to combat the situation, the debate may as well be put to rest. Climate change has continued to increase over the years majorly as a result of human activities such as deforestation and an emission of toxic gas from our daily activities such as production in industries. Climate changes, for example, global rise in temperature, glacial retreat, reduced snow cover, rise in sea level, extreme events and acidification of the ocean have been a result of global warming.

Reference

Climate change causes: A blanket around the Earth. (2018, October 15). Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/

Climate change evidence: How do we know? (2018, October 15). Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/

Climate change explained | OVO Energy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ovoenergy.com/guides/energy-guides/what-is-climate-change.html

Durham, W. H., & Painter, M. (1998). The social causes of environmental destruction in Latin America. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

Grover, V. I. (2009). Global warming and climate change: Ten years after Kyoto and still counting. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Hunt, C. A. G. (2011). Carbon sinks and climate change: Forests in the flight against global warming. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Is Global Warming Real? Top 5 Arguments in Favor and Against it – Conserve Energy Future. (2016, December 25). Retrieved from https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/is-global-warming-real.php

Owens, C. (1999). Deforestation. Chanhassen, MN: Child’s World.

Thompson, A. (2007). Extreme measures. Nature Reports Climate Change, (0712), 92-92. doi:10.1038/climate.2007.63x

United States. (1989). The potential impact of global warming on agriculture: Hearing before the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, United States Senate, One Hundredth Congress, second session on the potential effects of global warming and global climate change on U.S. agriculture and forestry, December 1, 1988. Washington: U.S. G.P.O.

Whitmarsh, L. (2011). Scepticism and uncertainty about climate change: Dimensions, determinants and change over time. Global environmental change, 21(2), 690-700.

Wolvekamp, P. (1999). Forests for the future: Local strategies to prevent deforestation, economic blunders and injustice. London: Zed.

Climate Change as a Public Health Issue (2)

Climate Change as a Public Health Issue

11/04/2020

Kadeane MooYoungWest Coast University

Climate Change as a Public Health Issue

Environmental injustice can be well-defined as the unduly exposure of societies of the poor and color to pollution, and its related impacts on the environment and health, in addition to the uneven ecological protection and ecological excellence provided through regulations, laws, and government programs. Environmental injustice came from the element that several human groups or communities are excessively exposed to greater levels of an ecological threat than other parts of the community (Bick et al., 2018). There is real proof that environmental injustice is triggered by various factors, including unequal political power, misguided regulatory policy, unequal regulation enforcement, discriminatory siting, and higher exposure to environmental menaces. Social status and particularly low salaries are majorly linked to greater exposure to ecological risks in the residential location or private.

Science ought to play a critical part in the creation of a public health strategy. For a new and complex emerging matter such as environmental justice, science regularly cannot give policymakers with examination data to point decisively to a certain solution (Whyte, 2018). Among the environmental injustices met by ethnic minority and racial communities, one feature that is regularly overlooked is the impact of discrimination on the environs that the society is founded in. The common examples of social injustice that such communities undergo include: homophobia, discrimination, and ageism.

Public health is the art of improving and protecting the wellbeing of individuals and their societies. It is attained by responding and preventing infectious sicknesses, promoting healthy lifestyles, and investigating sickness and injury prevention. The advantages of approaching a health disparity as a public health issue normally yield health welfares, indirect and direct. Public health supports the well-being of the whole community, safeguards its safety and safeguards it from the spread of environmental hazards and infectious disease, and aids in ensuring access to quality and safe care to profit the populace. Public health should insert social justice to decrease rates of medical conditions caused by injustice.

Reference

Bick, R., Halsey, E., & Ekenga, C. C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of fast fashion Environmental Health, 17(1), 92

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7

Whyte, K. (2018). Settler colonialism, ecology, and environmental injustice. Environment and Society, 9(1), 125-144.

https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2018.090109

Climate Change as a Public Health Issue

Date

Name

West Coast University

Climate Change as a Public Health Issue

Reference

Bick, R., Halsey, E., & Ekenga, C. C. (2018). The global environmental injustice of fast fashion Environmental Health, 17(1), 92

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7

Whyte, K. (2018). Settler colonialism, ecology, and environmental injustice. Environment and Society, 9(1), 125-144.

https://doi.org/10.3167/ares.2018.090109

Climate Change Education in China Analysis of Existing CCE Organizations, development of CCE

Climate Change Education in China: Analysis of Existing CCE Organizations, development of CCE

Introduction

Today, schools and other educational institutions in China teach environmental topics on climate change and sustainable energy utilization as part of the “green education” mandate in the country. The environmental topics range from “carbon emissions” from various human activities, “sources and consequences of climate change” in the country, “behavioral guidance” on sustainable energy utilization, and “mitigatory actions” to control and prevent derogatory carbon production (Wiedenbach, 2020). Primary school curriculums focus on “stimulating junior pupils’ curiosity” on their living environment and topics like CO2 while secondary school curriculums subsume environmental and educational matters into broad topics of chemistry, physics and geography (Wang, 2021). Additionally, there are several climate change education organizations in the country that complement conventional teaching by fostering climate activism among the youth and rallying the whole public to take action against climate change by engaging in sustainable energy and resource utilization. These organizations work with the government, schools, and the local community to provide basic and advanced information on the current status in China, create innovative technologies to fight climate change, as well as contribute to policy and curriculum development in schools. This paper seeks to explore the development of these Climate Change Education (CCE) Organizations in China over the past twenty years by traversing the factors that have actively led to their proliferation in recent time.

The first part of this paper gives a comprehensive background for the research by detailing the developmental timelines for CCE organizations and climate change education in the country. It states some of the CCE organizations considered for this research and their contributions to CCE education in China. The second part is an extensive literature reviews that reconnoiters the characteristics of CCE organizations in the Chinese context by stating their fundamental features while separating them from other global CCEs. To further explore the development of CCE organizations in China, the literature review section explores the various factors that have contributed to CCE efforts and organizations in the country as well as providing an analysis of the challenges facing these organizations.

Research Background

Education and cognizance building regarding sustainable development, climate change, and global warming have been part of China’s educational curriculum over the past two decades. China introduced Climate Change Education (CCE) into its curriculum in the late 1990s due to increased global and national attention to sustainable socio-economic development that proactively protected the environment and the rising, irreversible dangers of climate change (Wiedenbach, 2020). After the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, climate change education in China strongly gravitated towards preparing learners to understand the causes and consequences of climate change, developing national policies for effective response to the global situation, as well as empowering students to take appropriate actions towards advocating for, and living more sustainable lifestyles. Since the adoption of “Guidelines for Implementing Environmental Education in Elementary and Secondary Education” in 2003 and China’s “National Climate Action Plan 2014-2020,” various organizations and institutions have sprung up across the country to help schools and universities realize the goals of the CCE curriculum. They include the China Youth Climate Action Network, a non-profit environmental organization that focuses on empowering China’s youth and university students to advocate for climate change; Tsinghua University, a comprehensive research institution actively engaged in creating, developing, and disseminating innovative ideas on sustainable energy systems, and the Hong Kong Combat Climate Change Coalition, an alliance between the government and private actors working on solving Hong Kong’s climate crises.

Research Questions

The following research questions will explore the development of CCE organizations in China.

What Characterizes CCE organizations in the Chinese Context?

What environmental, economic, and historical factors have contributed to augmenting CCE organizations and efforts across the country?

What challenges do CCE organizations face today?

Literature Review

In this section, I provide a comprehensive overview of the characteristic features of China’s CCE organizations as well as the environmental, economic, and historical factors that have contributed to their growth over the past two decades. Some of the challenges facing CCE organizations in the country are also discussed through the nexus of existing literature.

Characteristics of Chinese CCE organizations

Education

The Shanghai Environmental Education Center, a joint program between Shanghai’s Environmental Protection Agency and the Ministries of Education, UNEP, and Tongji University founded the “Institute of Environment for Sustainable Development” to provide an interdisciplinary and international learning environment for Chinese students in matters related to climate change (Lee, 2007). Therefore, one of the characteristic features of Chinese CCE organizations is that they are proactively engaged in offering education to students on this contemporary mater. Lee (2018) believes that education significantly encourages people to change their attitudes and regulate their behaviors on climate matters. On the other hand, Cordero et al. (2020) state that offering developmental education for children on matters pertaining to climate change is critical for concise building because it makes them aware of their “individual lifetime carbon emission levels.” When developing the rubric for “National and World-System Explanations of Educational Reforms,” Ginsburg et al. (1990) identified climate change as one of the factors leading to educational reforms in many countries across the globe. Educational policy developers are therefore concerned about the role of education in raising environmentally concise and ideologically woke students.

Chinese CCE organizations see to it that teachers are well trained on matters pertaining environmental conservation and climate change. Some of the organizations actively engaged in providing comprehensive teacher-training lessons on climate change include the Shanghai Environmental Education Center, the China-UK low carbon college in Shanghai, Shangri-la Institute for Sustainable Communities, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences- “Climate change, the development of the Arctic waterway, and the prospects for Sino-European cooperation” (UIL, 2020; Q. Wang et al., 2022, and Chen, 2020). The Ministry of Education Service Center and the National Institute of clean and low carbon energy are governmental organizations that regulate policies on climate change education as well as develop response actions for students as they receive these pertinent instructions (Tian & Wang, 2015). Environmental subjects taught in primary and secondary schools in the country are part of the “green education mandate” which seeks to ensure that all students are introduced to environmental matters affecting their lives. Land degradation, waste detachment, biodiversity, low-carbon travel and efficient use of natural resources, recycling, and psychosocial guidance on good “low-carbon behavior” are just a few of the topics covered (Wiedenbach, 2020).

Activism

Additionally, CCE organizations in the country are actively engaged in environmental and climate change activism. Non-governmental organizations like the “Friends of Nature,” the “Green Earth Volunteers and Wild China Movement,” and the “China Environment” are spearheading environmental activism to the next level (Xu, 2010). These activist CCE organizations are publicly protesting against increasing carbon emissions in the country, filing lawsuits against corporations that contribute to climate change through their exploitive activities, as well as exposing corrupt practices across environmental agencies in China. Dunlap (2015) argues that environmental activism is one of the most successful ways of ensuring that climate action is taken seriously by the government because it indicates an awaken society. World society perspectives also encourage societies to take up activism as one of the most radical but effective ways of advocating for change (Ramirez, 2012). Activist groups in China are therefore advocating for climate change, rallying the society to support climate change, as well as pushing the government to regulate on climate change.

Policy development

China has also created a number of policies and programs connected to education for sustainable development (ESD) and climate change education, recognizing the importance of education in fostering sustainable development (SD) (CCE) (Han, 2015). Climate change and environmental protection education has been taught in Chinese primary and secondary schools for more than two decades, though at varying levels of intensity and topic depth. Relevant materials are standardized as part of the official curriculum as part of other science-related courses. There do not appear to be any stand-alone environmental courses, though (Huang & Cheng, 2022). Beyond the formal level, it appears that teaching climate change and environmental protection is based on the preferences of individual teachers, who also bring relevant material adapted to their class (Wiedenbach, 2020). Environmental or climate change-related extracurricular activities differ from school to school and area to region, depending on instructor interest and the readiness of school administration and parents to embrace such themes. Some schools, however, major on ensuring incorporation of both curriculum and extra curriculum time in educating on the impact of human behavior and climate.

Schools are currently experimenting with new approaches to include sustainability information into education, in addition to developing and implementing dedicated sustainability education curriculum and textbooks. For example, in Beijing, one school teaches sustainability by incorporating the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations into the current school curriculum, particularly connecting each goal with relevant courses for each grade. The other institution takes a “whole school approach” to sustainability, incorporating it into students’ everyday routines on campus. The school, for example, offers a recycling area where students can learn and experience sorting recyclable paper products, various plastic products, hazardous wastes, and useable things for donation. All these efforts have been augmented by CCE organizations that are actively calling for climate change action in the country. They therefore develop new policies and guidelines to guide schools in adopting CCE education as well as help authenticate the new approaches to CCE education in the country.

Sustainability content typically gets lost when integrated into relevant disciplines in China, as it does in many other Asian countries and areas, and is easily overlooked by instructors if the information is not related to standardized tests. Even though the subject is assessed through tests, the methodology often concentrates on test preparation, with little emphasis paid to developing students’ knowledge, attitudes, and values, all of which are important factors in incorporating sustainability lifestyles and behaviors. Furthermore, the high pressure of teaching a standardized curriculum leaves teacher with little time or energy to experiment with new pedagogies or organize extracurricular activities. As a result, in the absence of broader educational reforms and changes in classroom instruction, ‘ongoing curriculum design will need to include more innovative delivery modalities.

Environmental Factors Contributing to growth of CCE organizations and efforts in China

Coordination of environmental factors and economic development has become a global concern, and China’s ecological destruction and pollution have been in the limelight. Applying climate change knowledge could be a possible mitigation to the detrimental proponents that affect China’s environment. Education and creating awareness towards achieving sustainable development have been part of China’s education syllabus for over two decades. Chinese Ministry of Education had established an environmental policy for primary and secondary education known as the “Guidelines for Implementing Environmental Education in Elementary and Secondary Schools (Wiedenbach, 2020). However, China has witnessed an increase in Climate Change Education programs due to the increased industrialization that has been deemed to influence the global climate adversely. The economic factors are linked to numerous environmental sustainability challenges due to its large population, and perhaps this might have shifted the Government’s attention to more CCE programs.

The environmental factors have influenced various CCE programs and efforts across China. A report by CNBC revealed that China’s greenhouse emission is responsible for 27% of total global emissions (Newburger, 2021). The intense environmental issues intrigued China’s desire to participate in CCE programs to enhance a more secure environment for her citizens. Increased greenhouse gas emission has increased China’s efforts to manage climate change. China launched a system known as tradable performance standards (TPS) in July 2021 to help reduce China’s carbon emission by half as of 2060 (Yang & Goulder, 2021). The environment-related literature offers insight into the relationship between the emission of greenhouse gases and how it affects the climate in a particular area. Beijing has implemented policies to help reduce emissions and stem continuous degradation by signing the Paris Agreement in 2015 to pledge carbon neutrality (Maizland, 2021). Practical efforts produce model accomplishments through closing down wasteful warm power plants with a rough limit age of 34.21 GWs from 2006 to 2008 (Khan & Chang, 2018). Examination of energy changes demonstrates the public anticipating green sustainable power assets, e.g., sunlight based, wind, sea, and warm energies. The Chinese Government’s endeavors contributed to administrative measures to beat natural difficulties. Indeed, China is driving the world in the wind power age, with the most outstanding introduced limit contrasted with any state and with continually developing, new wind offices.

Overpopulation has been an environmental factor affecting China’s climate and has been a concern to the federal state. Yao (2021) believes China’s demographic crisis is taking a new toll, and more resources are exhausted. Yao claims that China’s population will reach its peak in the near future, an implication that her vegetative cover will reduce with time. It is no doubt that overpopulation is a significant contributor to global warming. Overpopulation has increased the efforts to promote Climate Change Education in China. To positively influence climate change, the human population has to be controlled. A report by Sustainable Development Goals reveals that China’s National Development and Reform Commission in the country was formed to ensure Chinese citizens are well informed about the detrimental effects of overpopulation on their climate (UN, 2020). China upheld its one-child policy to reduce population pressure and land degradation.

China’s environmental health challenges have been a significant factor that has led to the growth of CCE organizations. China’s groundwater in more than 60% of large towns is contaminated, and her significant rivers are unsuitable for consumption (Khan & Chang, 2018). Insufficient waste disposal facilities and treatment has been the leading cause of health problems influenced by climate change. The water crisis in some parts of China has thwarted arable farmlands into a desert; this is accompanied by poor farming practices and overgrazing which affects the climate. In 2019, Beijing received its first-UN accredited climate educator; project-based climate education had been adopted to help in educating on matters about climate change (Gupta & Gu, 2019). Environmental health challenges as a factor affecting the environment have steered the desire for numerous CCE programs to educate on keeping our environment safe. The State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) was moved up to the Service of Environmental Protection (MEP). It acquired gigantic significance as a virtual office of the State Council (Suharman & Karo, 2020). The MEP is answerable for laying out and carrying out homegrown approaches related to contamination and natural issues. It holds an order to assess and carry out natural strategy throughout China. At the same time, the NDRC takes care of the issues related to the advancement and decrease of ozone-depleting substances.

Economic Factors contributing to the growth of CCE organizations and Efforts in China

Climate Change Education relies on economic factors to ensure numerous programs to help carb extreme climatic conditions. According to Zhu et al. (2019), exhaust cloud contamination has turned into an undeniably genuine ecological issue that truly compromises its good financial turn of events. China is one of the globe’s most prominent manufacturing economies; this implies that more effluents are released into the atmosphere (Zhang, 2017). As per the Annual Report on the State of the Environment in China, intense contamination issues and biological annihilation continued until 1996. (Kovaleva et al., 2021) In 1997, enhancements were noted in certain areas. From 1999 forward, the pattern toward escalating natural contamination has been put under broad control interestingly, yet environmental annihilation has stayed a significant issue to date. Manufacturing activities increase the propensity to set up more CCE programs to help monitor unethical economic activities that pose many environmental risks.

The attempt to forge a balance between public and industrial effluents and sustainable economic development has shifted the focus on establishing more CCE programs. A zero-tolerance policy should be adopted to address natural issues and difficulties. In such a manner, public endeavors are made to explain the matter; by taking reasonable steps, serviceable and result-situated procedures to accumulate and carry out the general environmental approaches are accomplished (Khan & Chang, 2018). The Chinese Government has been underway to solve the climate issues related to climate change. It has emphasized environmental protection approaches to reduce emissions into the atmosphere.

China’s desire to overtake the global market might be an economic factor that influences more CCE programs. China’s GDP has expanded by 6.3 times. This accomplishment, notwithstanding, has brought about issues of net energy imports, natural contamination and biological obliteration at home, cross-line contamination, and mounting carbon dioxide (CO2) discharges. Taking a gander at the future, the Chinese Government set up an objective of quadrupling the size of its GDP in 2000 by 2020. Notwithstanding, it is conceivable that this target might decline the issues of energy security, homegrown and territorial climate, and an unnatural weather change, which is providing a reason for concern. This study intends to explain the current state of energy-related and ecological issues hiding behind China’s high development and afterward evaluate what self-improvement homegrown endeavors and worldwide participation will be essential to limit the effects of these issues. This aspect encourages the formation of numerous CCE programs and intensifies the government efforts to uphold economic well-being and the climate of the region.

To ensure more reliable CCE organizations, the financial aspect of environmental performance has to be recognized. Improvement of the financial sector has acquired an eminent significance because of its financial and mechanical developments. Monetary advancement is capable of channelizing the reserve funds of the economy and dealing the financial specialists to keep resources in fluid structures and empower ventures (Wang et al., 2020). The progressions in monetary and innovative areas are coming about with acute effects on ecological execution and influencing climate change. The financial sector offers various assistance by increasing the expansion of industries, albeit causing increased pollution. The formation of CCE programs ensures that they are channeled to educative environmental programs when such financial services are issued.

Ideally, an individual’s willingness to pay for environmental protection has a causal effect on how the CCE programs are managed and how various efforts are implemented to realize a positive climatic change. Economic classes influence types of CCE programs and what should be done to uphold the existing ethics. Since everyone values the quality of the environment, the level of sacrifice towards protecting by contributing a specified amount of money might be a challenge since those with low wages would prefer to satisfy their basic needs. As the financial plan limitation is relaxed, the worth of an extra unit of utilization falls, and the compromise among utilization and environmental quality turns out to be less limited, expanding interest for the last option (Jayachandran, 2021). Besides, in more financially evolved locales like China, individuals are more mindful of the well-being and usefulness expenses of environmental well-being and its influence of climate change, which offers another explanation they could uphold climatic protection.

Historic Factors Leading to growth of CCE organizations and efforts in China

Dalian bay turns black

According to Zhou (2008), this is one of the top-notch disasters brought about by climate change in China which led to contamination of a massive chunk of the land. Previous investigations on the area revealed a shocking revelation that the incident occurred due to the continued release of untreated industrial waste in the area. The loss was enormous since it recorded the damage of approximately 5000 kilograms of sea cucumber and that of shellfish was 100,000 kilograms (Zhao et al., 2014). The year 1972 witnessed an accident that occurred in Dalian Bay where the rising tide brought with it black water and a lot of dead fish (Zhong, 2020). Following this event and the advice of Enlai Zhou, China sent a member to the Stockholm conference where it was noted that environmental degradation does not go down only as a technological problem but also a social and economic problem (Zhong, 2020).

The second event that occurred in the same year took place in Beijing where the fish was poisoned by metals in form of industrial discharge in the surrounding. More alarming was the fact that the individuals who consumed the fish risked their health since they later exhibited signs of poisoning from the fish. Prior to its pollution in 1997, the Guanting Reservoir posed as a major source of water for Beijing. The symptoms displayed by the residents included vomiting, stomach upsets, nausea, and headaches (Ruff, 1989). Current studies have suggested that fish poisoning in its severe case can be detrimental to the point it leads to pain in the muscles and can cause heart attack to the victim (Soni & Verma, 2018). The remedy to fish poisoning is attained through various ways of relieving the severity of the symptoms since the antidote for the same has not yet been achieved by the medical practitioners in line with the response to fish poisoning. Following the investigation was the setting up of a team to deal with the evident pollution in the reservoir. This was the pioneering team of its kind in China to be set up to deal with the adverse effect of pollution. Zhou, who later succumbed to blood cancer in the year of 1976 is seen as a revolutionary leader since under his premier leadership he foresaw the first project aimed towards treating pollution

National conference on Environmental Protection 1973

After the two historic incidents occurred in China, the Peoples Republic of China which was the main party started to push for efforts to protect China’s environment from the booming industrial activities in China at that time. coupled with the attendance of the Chinese delegate to the conference that took place in Stockholm was the first-ever domestic conference to be held which was the National Conference on Environmental Protection 1973. It was organized by the nation’s planning committee as per the instructions by the state council.

During this conference, several regulations were set up that were to enable the protection of the environment and the improvement of the same going forward. Even though these regulations were only meant to be trials, they soon became permanent upon continuous practice. During the same conference, the youth were also urged to conduct research and to lead the role of educating the other members of the public on the need to protect the environment. The youth were chosen due to their pivotal role in the society which bestowed them as the heir to the leadership of the next generation. In addition, the regulations came with a unique stipulation that necessitated the tertiary learning institutions to award certificates, majors, and honors to courses on environmental education. According to Tian and Li (2016), this move acted as one of the first steps towards achieving environmental education in China which was inclusive of climate change education in the country. Thereafter, some universities around China including Beijing engineering University commenced an offering of environmental courses (Mc Beath et l., 2014). This was a faster rate compared to that witnessed in primary and secondary institutions in the country which was pioneered five years later.

In 1979, China then passed its pioneering environmental law which offered more emphasis on the tertiary institutions to teach environmental courses for the country to end up with specialists who would, in turn, teach the common members of the public who could not make it to the tertiary institutions to learn about climate change themselves (Qu, 1993). In addition, the law emphasized on the content to be taught concerning the environment and climate inclusive where it mandated that the primary and secondary students could be subjected to a certain concentration of content in order not to bombard them but to ensure effective learning. According to Zhu and Dillon (2001), the second national conference on environmental protection was crucial just like the first one since it was during this event that the reigning vice-premier of the country announce that environmental protection would be enacted as a long-term policy of the state. In accordance with the policy, environmental protection studies were included in the biology syllabus at the national level which meant that all syllabi being produced by different publishers were mandated to include the subject matter in their books failure of which would be viewed as defiance to the state policy.

In 2005 when the United Nations embraced the idea that China should enter into a decade of sustainable development because of its huge contributions in terms of industrial emissions, the same body had acknowledged that the first conference held in the country opened gates for a movement and policy that has the potential to steadily restore the country to its environmentally friendly days (McBeath et al.,2014). Climate change is a problem that has firm roots in China and it displays itself through various ways such as flooding of certain areas which lead to the displacement of people. on the same note, climate change education has taken huge strides in the country and is viewed as a remedy to the effect of climate change.

Challenges Facing CCE organizations in China

Limited financial resources

According to Monroe et al. (2017), climate change education is vital as it coaxes the local population to contribute towards mitigation and adaption of practices that provide a positive impact on climate change. A majority of the climate change education organizations in China are non-Governmental organizations including Shangri -Ia Institute for sustainable communities, the China- UK low carbon college, and the China Association for NGO Cooperation – creative. A huge proportion of these organizations face the problem of acquiring funds since they rely massively on donors and getting donors with the appropriate conditions for funding is an uphill task (Alonso, 2017). Pruneau, khattabi, and Demers (2010) argue that lack of financial resources as a structural challenge makes it near impossible if not impossible to put into practice and implement educational activities regarding climate change education. Furthermore, the climate change education by organizations can begin with efforts such as mobilizing the community through events, these events require funding. Recently, China has marked two decades since it began the incorporation of climate change education into its curriculum. However, required to drive this program is the training of staff and funding of research projects in the universities (Filho et al., 2021). According to (, 2021), nations all over the world are concerned with health and climate, however, they lack proper funding which has been fueled further by the post effects of the COVID 19 pandemic. Without proper funding systems and support from the government and voluntary donors, the efforts towards climate change education are rendered inefficient.

Failures of environmental policies.

The Chinese political system is aligned in such a way that it prioritizes economic growth over environmental a case which has resulted in a thriving economy but a continued degradation of the environment (Xu & Faure, 2016). In addition, Xu and Faure (2016), continue to argue that whereas there have been environmental policies targeted towards soothing the impacts and causes of climate change, lack of inclusion of the public during the formulation of these policies has been the downfall of the policies. Therefore, teaching these policies in institutions has not been effective due to the dynamism of the policies. The organizations have also found it hard to adapt and align their activities with environmental policies because they change rapidly. According to (Smith, 2015), China produced more stringent policies against environmental degradation. This action provides evidence for the continuous improvements in the environmental policies in the country.

The complexity of climate change

From a general understanding, the climate of the earth is complex since it comprises the atmosphere, the water bodies such as the oceans, the land surface, and the flow of energy. The changes in the climatic conditions are a result of the different compositions of the gases in the atmosphere. In its description alone, the atmosphere consists of four zones, therefore understanding climate change is an intricate process. Although climate change is one of the crucial issues of the twenty-first century, understanding the factors that lead to it is complex given that more effort knowledge on this field tends to complicate matters more (Swift, 2015). According to (Bangay, 2010), numerous education materials on climate change tend to focus on how the knowledge is transferred rather than the complexity of the issue and how it can be integrate

Climate Change Facilitates and Exacerbates Animosity Among

Name

Professor

Course

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Climate Change Facilitates and Exacerbates Animosity Among Communities Living in the Sub-Saharan African Region

Introduction

Sub-Saharan Africa comprises more than two-thirds of the African nations. Besides, Sub-Saharan Africa accommodates people from varying socio-cultural, political, religious, and ethnic backgrounds. Unfortunately, more than 40 percent of the countries in the region have encountered instances of civil war. As such, Sub-Saharan Africa could be treated as a war-torn region. Subsequently, several people have lost their lives while others have been displaced from their original places of residence. In 2015, more than 8,300 people died within two months in Sub-Saharan Africa following the insurgency of a militant group called Boko Haram (Villiers). The deaths occurred in five countries, including Niger, Somalia, Sudan, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Besides, an Al-Qaeda liked group called Al-Shabaab has been terrorizing different countries in East Africa. Al-Shabaab appears to be waging religious wars as it strives to establish Islamic states in the region, especially in Somalia (Chiluwa 218). Precisely, various factors that entail religious and political affiliations and socioeconomic aspects trigger civil wars and conflicts in the region. For instance, socio-economically disadvantaged, unemployed, and uneducated persons constitute the majority of the Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab militants (Villiers). Moreover, Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing adverse impacts of climate change that entail prolonged droughts, severe floods, and a rise in atmospheric temperatures. Subsequently, varied diseases, shortage of food, and destruction of crops and animals are common occurrences in the region.

Statement of the Problem. A significant decline in the intensity and frequency of organized political wars in the region has been witnessed between the 2000s and 1990s (Straus 180). However, conflicts over basic resources that entail water and land, as well as electoral violence, tend to rise and become persistent over time.

Statement of Purpose. This study serves to accomplish two purposes:

Determine climatic factors that trigger conflicts and violence in Sub-Saharan Africa

Establish social changes that happen due to climate change

Hypothesis

Null hypothesis: Climate change does not exacerbate or facilitate conflicts and civil wars in Sub-Saharan Africa

Alternative hypothesis: Climate change exacerbates and facilitates the growth of conflicts and civil wars in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Research Questions

How does climate change impact on the availability of arable land and clean water in Sub-Saharan Africa?

How do communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa respond to the adverse impacts of climate change?

How do communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa protect their valued natural resources, especially water and land?

Significance of the Study. This research study would unravel vital information regarding the link between climate change and hatred among communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, findings from the study would elaborate on how climate change facilitates conflicts among such populations. As such, interested parties would utilize the information to develop appropriate strategies for preventing or addressing the undesired effects of climate change on the social wellbeing of the residents.

Limitations. This study would rely only on critical analyses of secondary sources of information. Accordingly, the levels of accuracy and originality of such secondary sources would dictate the quality of this report. Besides, personal judgment and inferences would primarily inform this study and shape the final outputs, conclusions, and recommendations.

Assumptions. It is assumed that available information would adequately represent each nation within Sub-Saharan Africa. Besides, it is assumed that communities from every part of Sub-Saharan Africa would exhibit similar responses to the impacts of climate change.

Literature Review

The review of the existing literature would provide a strong foundation and guideline for this study. Accordingly, relevant resources would comprise those that focus on conflicts and wars in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although varied factors could encourage disputes and civil wars in different parts of the globe, the adverse impacts of climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa could be linked to the relatively rampant and possibly increasing cases.

Sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing rampant cases of civil wars and conflicts due to particular reasons that include economic dependence on natural resources, failed political institutions, and high levels of poverty (Elbadawi and Sambanis 253-54). According to Elbadawi and Sambanis, the relatively widespread assumption that religious and ethnic diversity trigger wars in the continent could be misleading (254). Some political institutions cannot adequately control and encourage appropriate politics. Instead, some of the institutions could allow the growth and use of militants by rogue politicians. Besides, high-levels of poverty in the region could trigger conflicts and civil wars in specific ways. For instance, desperate individuals could join militant groups and accept to be abused by rich politicians. Also, reliance on natural resources as the primary source of income and economic growth attracts unhealthy competitions that end in conflicts and civil wars. Most of the inhabitants of the region exploit natural resources such as forests, rivers, and lakes as their primary sources of income. Therefore, various factors other than religious and ethnic diversities facilitate violent conflicts and civil wars in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Moreover, diversity in communities living the Sub-Saharan countries trigger civil wars. Specifically, religious, cultural, ethnic, and political factors serve as the main forces behind the relatively many civil wars in Africa. Some categories of people try to express their superiority through fierce competitions and wars (Fearon, and Laitin 4). Unfortunately, the significant variances among the communities in the region could drive them to view and perceive each other as an enemy. For example, Islamic communities and Christians could treat each other as enemies due to their theological differences and beliefs. Likewise, persons from one community could treat each other as brothers and sisters while taking those from other communities as enemies. Hence, diversity has been a key contributor to the rampant civil wars and conflicts in the region.

Further, religious extremists serve as one of the major forces behind the rampant conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa (Basedau 3). Different religious factions have been linked to conflicts and wars in different parts of the region. Varied groups of people uphold strong stances in specific religious identities and theological understandings. Unfortunately, such variances could end up in conflicts that may attract fierce wars as each religious group strives to attract more followers and gain dominance. For example, Islamic groups have been fighting with Christians. Every religious group believes that its actions are righteous and acceptable.

Additionally, European imperialism and colonialism that led to the establishment of artificial borders in Sub-Saharan Africa contribute to the constant chaos, conflicts, and wars in the region (Okumu 280). Initially, residents of the region used to travel and settle with little or no restrictions. As such, each group of people would determine their most preferred areas for settlement. For example, farmers would look for places with climatic and soil conditions that are suitable for farming. Unluckily, the colonialist introduced undesired restrictions that rendered different sections in the region appear as individual belongings. Subsequently, every nation and community strives to protect the new borders. Unluckily, conflicts, chaos, and civil wars would occur when those treated as outsiders attempt to enter other communities’ territories. Therefore, people in the region could still be sharing the natural resources if not for the European-imposed boundaries.

From the above analytical literature, a key question emerges: How is climate change linked to the conflicts and civil wars in Sub-Saharan Africa?

Research Method

This study would rely on a qualitative research method to facilitate the generation of more details through the use of personal inferences and understandings from available information (Rahman 104). Accordingly, this study relies primarily on secondary sources of data. Following the nature of this study, reliance on secondary sources of data serves as the most suitable approach to ensure timely completion and delivery of a quality report. Thus, purposive sampling would be employed to determine the most appropriate and highly-relevant resources of data using specific search terms that entail climate change, Sub-Saharan Africa, civil wars, and conflicts. Besides, critical analysis and evaluation of existing literature would be done in an attempt to elaborate on how climate change facilitates and exacerbates conflicts and civil wars among communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Findings and Discussions

As climate change unfolds, highly-valuable natural resources that entail arable land and clean water become scarce. Specifically, Sub-Saharan Africa is experiencing climate change that has attracted undesired outcomes that entail extreme weather conditions (prolonged droughts, floods, and a rise in temperatures). Accordingly, the different communities residing in the region endeavor to sustain their lives, their crops, and livestock by protecting the available resources (Tadesse, and Dereje 43). People with access to clean water and arable land would like to preserve and protect such resources from invasion by other communities. Unfortunately, the communities that do not have access to the limited resources would fight for them. Thus, civil wars prevail as communities compete for ownership and access to the available resources.

Climate change exacerbates poverty among communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa. The unpredictable and extreme weather conditions have rendered agriculture unfruitful. For instance, extended droughts would result in the destruction of crops and the death of livestock (Ahmed et al. 144). As a result, affected communities could opt to invade and rob their neighbors because they do not have other resources, especially finances, for purchasing basic needs such as food. Unluckily, such acts could attract more conflicts that may facilitate fierce wars. Communities whose crops and livestock succumb to extreme weather conditions would be left in dire poverty that demands immediate reactions for survival. As such, the affected communities would do virtually anything and everything to secure basic needs. Unfortunately, their unwanted acts of stealing from their neighbors could lead to retaliatory attacks. Eventually, the involved groups would treat each other as an enemy, a perception that could be transferred from one generation to the next.

Adverse consequences of climate change could prompt authorities to provide relief foods and other basic services to affected communities. Unfortunately, a rampant is the issue of corruption in the region could facilitate inefficiencies and unfair distribution of the services and products (Murshed and Saadat 188). Specifically, leaders could provide and care for their ethnic groups, relatives, and family members. Besides, corruption would trigger the provision of excess products and services to particular groups of people. Subsequently, the neediest and vulnerable individuals may not receive the vital services, while those who do not deserve assistance benefit from the donations. As a result, each group of people would be competing and fighting for government-sponsored products and services. Since the competition is not healthy, conflicts and wars could ensue. Weaker communities would treat the dominant and superior ones as their enemies.

Moreover, climate change would facilitate the migration of people within and out of Sub-Saharan Africa (Serdeczny et al. 10). Precisely, the adverse weather conditions that include a rise in temperatures, prolonged droughts, and floods would displace people from their initial areas of residence. For instance, people would be moving out of flooded regions and those experiencing high cases of malaria due to heavy infestation by mosquitoes. As affected persons move from one point to the other, they meet with other people. Besides, the migrants would struggle to secure better and safer places of residence. Similarly, rural-urban migration would intensify as people try to find alternative sources of income and livelihood. As a result, urban centers would be congested by persons from varied cultural backgrounds. Unfortunately, such practices could facilitate the growth of conflicts, especially where the migrants make a forceful entrance into specific parts of the region. That is, the initial residents could find migrants as unwelcome intruders. Persons from varied religious, ethnic, political, and cultural backgrounds would converge. As a result, chaos and wars could ensue due to their diversities.

Similarly, more instances of conflicts and animosity would prevail in densely populated parts of Sub-Saharan Africa following the fight for basic social amenities including, schools, churches, and hospitals (Baumann and Kuemmerle 680). Since the adverse impacts of climate change would affect several people, social facilities would be congested while vital services and products like drugs may become more scarce. For instance, hospitals would be receiving numerous patients due to the rising cases of malaria and other infectious diseases, malnutrition, injuries from floods, and other related ailments. As a result, people would be struggling to gain access to the necessary facilities and benefit from their services. Unfortunately, the corrupt could take advantage of the situation to serve particular individuals while leaving the rest to fight for their lives. Besides, residents would be fighting for the establishment of additional facilities at nearby locations. Also, some patients could perceive that healthcare providers are unwilling to assist and treat them. Collectively, more conflicts and animosity would develop as each person and community struggle to acquire limited services and social facilities.

Additionally, authorities attract further animosity as they respond to the impacts of climate change. For example, some countries, including Kenya, have been forcefully evicting forest encroachers in an attempt to restore forest cover (Cavanagh et al. 309). Unfortunately, most of the authorities do not have suitable strategies for resetting the evictees. Instead, the involved governments could use excessive forces to evict the encroachers and leave them without basic needs, including shelter, food, and clothing. As a result, most of them end up being landless and more impoverished. Subsequently, the evicted communities would perceive that their governments and proponents of the evictions do not value and dislike them. Thus, the evictees could attack their neighbors or hate them in retaliation. Therefore, if not for climate change, people could be staying in peace and harmony at virtually every corner of the Sub-Sahara region.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Climate change would attract adverse social impacts on Sub-Saharan Africa by exacerbating animosity among the affected communities. Even so, the adverse effects of climate would indirectly facilitate the growth of hostility through various ways that include a decline of natural resources such as clean water and arable land as well as a further scarcity of social amenities and relevant services and products. Factors that include a rise in the number of infectious diseases like malaria, an increase in casualties, and victims of natural calamities such as floods and migrations would lead to congestions and stiff competitions. As a result, communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa could encounter more conflicts and hatred as they struggle to access and acquire the limited resources and services. Similarly, governments’ efforts to respond to adverse impacts of climate change would trigger hatred and conflicts among the affected communities. Also, unfairness and acts of corruption during the distribution of state-sponsored products and services would exacerbate animosity and disputes in the region. Accordingly, interested parties and governments falling within Sub-Saharan Africa should establish suitable strategies for preventing and addressing conflicts that may emerge. Specifically, the engage parties should endeavor to fight corruption to ensure fairness with regards to the distribution of government-sponsored services and products. Moreover, communities living in Sub-Saharan Africa should strive to understand and appreciate their diversities to facilitate better social-wellbeing and togetherness. Every person in the region should exhibit high levels of humanity to ensure that they assist each other during instances of natural disasters and calamities.

Suggestion for Further Research Studies

Findings from this study assert that climate change act as one of the leading causes of conflicts and civil wars in Sub-Saharan Africa. Accordingly, further research studies should be conducted to determine the extent and frequency at which each impact of climate change influence animosity in the region. Besides, more studies should be conducted to find out if every part of Sub-Saharan Africa experiences similar social impacts from climate change.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Haseeb, et al. “Economic burden of livestock disease and drought in northern Tanzania.” (2019).

Basedau, Matthias. “The Rise of Religious Armed Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa: No Simple Answers.” GIGA Focus Afrika, no. 4, Aug. 2017, pp. 1–11. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=afh&AN=124960547&site=ehost-live.

Baumann, Matthias, and Tobias Kuemmerle. “The impacts of warfare and armed conflict on land systems.” Journal of land use science 11.6 (2016): 672-688.

Cavanagh, Connor Joseph, et al. “Critical ecosystem infrastructure: Governing the forests–Water Nexus in the Kenyan Highlands.” Water Justice (2018): 302-315.

Chiluwa, Innocent. “Radicalist discourse: a study of the stances of Nigeria’s Boko Haram and Somalia’s Al Shabaab on Twitter.” Journal of Multicultural Discourses 10.2 (2015): 214-235.

Elbadawi, Ibrahim, and Nicholas Sambanis. “Why Are There So Many Civil Wars in Africa? Understanding and Preventing Violent Conflict.” Journal of African Economies, vol. 9, no. 3, Oct. 2000, pp. 244–269. EBSCOhost, doi:https://academic.oup.com/jae/issue.

Fearon, James D., and David D. Laitin. “Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war.” American political science review 97.1 (2003): 75-90.

Howard, Rhoda E. “Civil conflict in sub-Saharan Africa: internally generated causes.” International Journal 51.1 (1996): 27-53.

Murshed, Muntasir, and Syed Yusuf Saadat. “The Impacts of Corruption on the Efficacy of Public Expenditure on Health: Evidence from Bangladesh.” Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Development, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2018.

Okumu, Wafula. “Resources and border disputes in Eastern Africa.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 4.2 (2010): 279-297.

Rahman, Md Shidur. “The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches and Methods in Language” Testing and Assessment” Research: A Literature Review.” Journal of Education and Learning 6.1 (2017): 102-112.

Serdeczny, Olivia, et al. “Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions.” Regional Environmental Change 17.6 (2017): 1585-1600.

Straus, Scott. “Wars Do End! Changing Patterns of Political Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Affairs, vol. 111, no. 443, Apr. 2012, pp. 179–201. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1093/afraf/ads015.

Tadesse, Gezu, and Moges Dereje. “Impact of climate change on smallholder dairy production and coping mechanism in Sub-Saharan Africa-review.” Agricultural Research & Technology 16 (2018).

Villiers, Shirley. “FACTSHEET: Conflict-Related Deaths In Sub-Saharan Africa”. Africa Check, 2015, https://africacheck.org/factsheets/conflict-related-deaths-in-sub-saharan-africa/. Accessed 2 Mar 2020.

Climate change is a major topic of concern globally

Climate change is a major topic of concern globally. Countries have come together to identify some of the things that can be done to combat climate change and its effects. On the national level, the United States executive headed by the president and its branches has been instrumental in enforcing and implementing laws and policies on climate change. The major branches of the executive that are concerned with climate change are the departments of defense and transport. The Department of Transport oversees the transport system in the whole country. Emission of carbon from the burning of fossil fuels is one of the major contributors of global warming and consequently climate change. The Department of Transportation intervenes on the issue of climate change by setting standards in the fuel that reduce carbon emission and encourage the use of non-fossil fuels such as electric vehicles.

The Department of Defense is tasked with planning for consequences of climate change. For example, events such as wildfires, earthquakes, and floods al pose a threat to the security both nationally and globally. The third department of the executive that is concerned with fighting climate change is the Department of Energy. Fossil fuels are the main source of energy in many countries. The generation of electricity and fuels in motor vehicles release carbon and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect from these gases contributes to global warming. The Department of Energy implements policies of efficient energy use, such as the use of nuclear energy to generate electricity. Climate change is a collective action problem because everyone contributes and is affected in one way or another, and therefore it takes collective responsibility to address it. It is difficult to encourage people to make changes in their lives to address climate change. The main reason for this is that they think their individual actions make no difference compared to the billions of people on earth.

Classical music has various musical forms that include themes and variations

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Classical music has various musical forms that include themes and variations, Rondo, symphony and the sonata (Adorno,2018). From refers to the arrangement of the sections within a piece of music. Theme and variations are a common type of the classical music where the entire song is based on a theme. A theme can be a group of small phrases that are added up to make a complete musical idea. A theme is presented in the beginning while the rest of the music consists of the variations of the main theme, and the variations can be identified through the change of tempo, pitch texture, tonality as well as the overall emotional expressions. During composition, a composer may choose to apply one or several manipulations. An example of theme and variation music form is that of the ‘Ah Vous dirai-je, maman’ composed by Mozart and consists of 12 variations.

Symphony is another form of Classical music (Reich,2017). The structure of the symphony has four movements. The first movement (Allegro) that is fast and in sonata form, the second movement (Adagio) is slow, the third movement (Menuetto) is dance like while the fourth movement is (Allegro) is fast. An example of the symphony is the work of Mozart, symphony number 41 in C Major. The other form of classical music is the Sonata which is a more complex version (Burnham,2017). The Sonata has several sections with each of the sections having a specific name and purpose. The first section is the exposition that introduces the themes that are often two and forms the basis of the entire movement. The second section is the development, concentrating on the themes that were presented in the first section, and the primary purpose is manipulation of the theme in several ways. The recapitulation is the third section and is a restatement of the entire exposition with the second them appearing at the pitch level of the home key rather than in a different key as for the case in exposition (Swinkin,2017). An example of the Sonata form of classical music is the work of Ludwig Van Beethoven References

Adorno, T. W. (2018). Beethoven: The philosophy of music. John Wiley & Sons.

Burnham, S. (2017). Beethoven’s Hero. In Beethoven (pp. 13-44). Routledge.

Reich, M. (2017). Subtle Irony in Personal Growth: Beethoven and Prokofiev’s” Classical” Symphonies.

Swinkin, J. (2017). About a Key: Tonal Reference in Beethoven’s Sonata-Form Works. The Journal of Musicology, 34(4), 515-558.

Classification and division paper

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Classifying the Different Types of People at a Specific Type of Party

When well defined, a party signifies a gathering of individuals for the purposes of recreation, socialization, conversation, as part of other commemoration, or as part of a festival or celebration of a special occasion. A party will generally have food and drinks, and time and again music and dancing and many other forms of entertainment. In most Western nations, parties for adults and teens are associated with taking alcohol such as distilled spirits, beer, and wine. One of the examples of parties is a dinner party. It is a formal social congregation upon which individuals take dinner together, commonly in the host’s personal home. A buffet of food is offered on the table for at least formal dinner parties, and the visitors pick kinds of stuff from the buffet and eat as they mingle and talk. In most formal dinner parties, food is served at a dining table with a place setting. Women might wear cocktail dresses.

Another type of party is the birthday party. They are designed for the most unforgettable time of a child and adult. It happens to be a celebration of the anniversary of the birth of an individual who is honored. People normally wear different types of clothes. Some might wear a common dressing code attire for uniformity, like an all-white dressing code. A tea party is also a type of another party. In Anglo-American culture, a tea party is an official assembly for midafternoon tea. The tea is accompanied by cookies, thin sandwiches, and cake slices. These bashes are conventionally attended only by women and commonly categorized by striking tableware, such as silver and bone china. The last type of party is a pool party. It is a party that includes activities like in a swimming pool for individuals. It can be a wild and wet time if kids are invited to the party. It is always enjoyable gathering with friends to have fun during the hot summer periods.

My Writing Experience

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My Writing Experience

Writing has always played a significant part in my life. Learning something new can be undoubtedly tricky, and I can relate this with my writing experience. Since I was a small kid, I can comfortably state that I have always had great interest and awareness regarding writing. As a kid, I had a smooth experience of learning because of the eminence of teaching and support that I was receiving from my family members particularly my father. Initially, I started writing by drawing simple objects and symbols which I could later name afterward. I can remember very well my father teaching me how to write by giving me a draft book and then asking me to write about some simple topics like “My Family,” “My Pet,” and I seemed to enjoy the whole process. In the start, there were some struggles while writing for example like coming up with a complete sentence. Moreover, my grammar and vocabulary were poor, but with time, my writing skills were significantly improving.

It was during the early education that I achieved to sharpen my writing skills and this played a significant role in my life. Therefore, all the support that I received provided a good ground for me in learning first the reading and writing basics of the English language. The support made my learning to seem more manageable, and thus I had enough time to relish writing about anything that fascinated me outside my school work as well as handling the tasks that were set in front of me.

The availability of many reading and writing materials at home, as well as my passion for writing, made me grow up being a creative child. I stopped writing funny essays about my parents, friends, and pets and started writing things like becoming a superman and building robots. I could read or watch a movie and then write down small writing concerning the content and later come up with my piece. I could feel like I was living outside of this world as most of the time I experienced some strange imaginations. I liked reading and writing real fiction as well as some stuff of fantasy that could make my mind stray from realism. This kind of stuff made kept my spirit alive, and I enjoyed it. The nature of pictures that I was able to put into my mind made me think and therefore I continued to write. When my mother saw my writings, she was shocked and said that I was too young for writing such content and she saw it a strange thing. However, my father always had my back. He continued bringing more materials to read and as he said he saw a great author in me.

After joining I school, things became even more interesting. My school library was stocked with many books, and I never imagined setting my foot there possibly because of shyness. One day I decided to visit the library during my free time while carrying my notebook and pen which I never left behind while going into an important place. Inside the library, I felt in a different world. The place was terrific, and the books were well placed. There was a serene environment, and everybody was busy with their stuff, some reading while others were writing. My attention was caught by the book entitled “Harry Potter” on one of the shelves. I decided to read the first pages of the book before the library time was over.

The story was about a young boy named Harry Potter who lived with his wand-wielding friends at the time of witchcraft and wizardry. The book had an epic story such that I could not control myself from further reading while down some important notes. I thought this was the most astonishing book in the whole world. The book had the most delightful sparky pictures. This experience made me start thinking about how I could come up with such a beautiful story and put it into writing. This increased my interest in writing, and therefore I started coming up with some short, fascinating epic stories which I could read in front of my classmates.

However, I feel that my interest, as well as my desire to write, grew once I reached middle school. There before I used to read a lot with some little writing but in middle school, we were required to write some stories for a test. Our English teacher was so encouraging, and she supported us where necessary. Her proficiency in the language made to see her as my mentor. I used to go to her for assistance, and she would give me some topics and articles to write about where she later corrected me where I was wrong. She demanded a one hundred percent score from me in her subject and most of the time I gave out my best my emerging to be the top student. She encouraged me to keep writing as she saw I had a great passion for it.

Presently I enjoy writing a lot since it consents me to express my feelings, establish my beautiful thoughts and to study information. Consequently, writing helps me to get my beliefs as well as opinions out in the open. I feel like I can write about anything that have ever crossed up my mind. Writing has helped me not only in school work but also in communication. As a form of communication I can write some nice speeches and articles that can be advantageous both at individual and national level. Thus I tend to be very obsessive about literacy since I regard both writing and reading as the basis of learning as well as finding oneself. I consider writing as my talent and I feel like I can write forever.