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Chapter 9

The Egyptians and the Mayans had some of the most elaborate rituals when it came to the burials of their kings. The Egyptians preserved their pharaohs in elaborate tombs enclosed in ornate tombs that still attract tourists to this day. The Mayans, though less detailed, still had some remarkable traditions surrounding the burial of their kings. The tow kingdoms existed at different periods and in different places, but there are several reasons why they share similarities in the burial rites. These include the high esteem with which they held their kings and rulers and a shared belief in life after death.

Kings and rulers were held in high esteem by the people over whom they ruled. The Egyptians believed that their Pharaohs were wise men close to the gods. The kings were therefore highly respected, and this is shown in their burial place and the rituals surrounding their death. Their coffins were made of wood and gold, to show that their kings were just as precious in life as in death. The Egyptians also took care to bury their kings to maintain a connection with the goods such as Ra, the god of the sun. The Mayans shared similar beliefs in the elaborate tombs built for their kings and the shrines on top of the pyramids. The kings would still hold a special place in their kingdom even after death.

The second reason why the Mayans and Egyptians had similar burial rituals is that they believed in life after death. Egyptian Pharaohs were mummified, which kept their bodies intact for many years. It was thought that the spirit lived on after death and needed to get back to the body for rest. The Mayans allowed their kings to decompose, but the bones were later sprinkled with mercury oxide. Such after death rituals show a belief in life after death. The pyramids of both Mayans and Egyptians contained everyday objects and paintings, an indication of the continuity of life after death.

Multiple Sclerosis disease

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, often disabling disease that randomly attacks the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). The progress, severity and specific symptoms of the disease cannot be predicted; symptoms may range from tingling and numbness to paralysis and blindness. MS is a devastating disease because people live with its unpredictable physical and emotional effects for the rest of their lives. MS is a well-known disease, but poorly understood. In the United States there are approximately 200 new cases diagnosed each week; MS is a common disease and not always caused by genetics. Therefore, I feel we all need to have a better understanding of this disease that has no cure yet. I hope to make MS more understanding in my paper. In my paper I will explain what MS is, who gets MS, what MS has to do with the metabolism, some new techniques being used to pinpoint genetic factors, what some of the symptoms of MS are.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disabling illness that affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord (Bernard). Under normal conditions an insulating sheath made of fatty myelin, which speeds the passage of nerve impulses, surrounds these nerve cells. In MS, this myelin sheath is inflamed or damaged, disrupting nerve impulses and leaving areas of scarring (sclerosis). The disruption of nerve signals within the brain and spinal cord causes a variety of symptoms that may affect vision, sensation, and body movements. These symptoms usually wax and wane through a series of relapses (episodes when symptoms suddenly get worse) alternating with remissions (periods of recovery, when symptoms improve). (Brunnscheiler) For many patients, a long history of MS attacks over several decades’ leads to slowly progressing disability, but for others the disability is more rapid and severe. MS is a life-long chronic disease diagnosed primarily in young adults who have a virtually normal life expectancy. Consequently, the economic, social, and medical costs associated with the disease are significant. Estimates place the annual costs of MS in the United States in excess of $2.5 billion. (Melvin) No one knows exactly how many people have MS. It is believed that, currently, there are approximately 250,000 to 350,000 people in the United States with MS diagnosed by a physician. (Boyden) This estimate suggests that approximately 200 new cases be diagnosed each week. Also, MS is the most common nerve disease to develop in young persons after birth, and it affects over 1 million young adults worldwide. Close relatives of a person with MS are 8 times more likely than average to develop the disease themselves, and children of a person with MS run 30 to 50 times the average risk. (Waxman) Most people experience their first symptoms of MS between the ages of 20 and 40, but a diagnosis is often delayed. This is due to both the transitory nature of the disease and the lack of a specific diagnostic test–specific symptoms and changes in the brain must develop before the diagnosis is confirmed. (Health Central) Although scientists have documented cases of MS in young children and elderly adults, symptoms rarely begin before age 15 or after age 60. Whites are more than twice as likely as other races to develop MS. In general, women are affected at almost twice the rate of men; however, among patients who develop the symptoms of MS at a later age, the gender ratio is more balanced. (Waxman) To understand what is happening when a person has MS, it is first necessary to know a little about how the healthy immune system works. The immune system — a complex network of specialized cells and organs — defends the body against attacks by “foreign” invaders such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It does this by seeking out and destroying the interlopers as they enter the body. Substances capable of triggering an immune response are called antigens. (Hofmann) The immune system displays both enormous diversity and extraordinary specificity. (Hofmann) It can recognize millions of distinctive foreign molecules and produce its own molecules and cells to match up with and counteract each of them. In order to have room for enough cells to match the millions of possible foreign invaders, the immune system stores just a few cells for each specific antigen. When an antigen appears, those few specifically matched cells are stimulated to multiply into a full-scale army. Later, to prevent this army from overextending, powerful mechanisms to suppress the immune response come into play. T-cells, so named because they are processed in the thymus, appear to play a particularly important role in MS. They travel widely and continuously throughout the body patrolling for foreign invaders. In order to recognize and respond to each specific antigen, each T cell’s surface carries special receptor molecules for particular antigens. T cells contribute to the body’s defenses in two major ways. Regulatory T cells help orchestrate the elaborate immune system. (Kaser) For instance, they assist other cells to make antibodies, proteins programmed to match one specific antigen much as a key matches a lock. Antibodies typically interact with circulating antigens, such as bacteria, but are unable to penetrate living cells. Chief among the regulatory T cells is those known as helper (or inducer) cells. Helper T cells are essential for activating the body’s defenses against foreign substances. (Kaser) Yet another subset of regulatory T cells acts to turn off, or suppress, various immune system cells when their job is done. Killer T cells, on the other hand, directly attack diseased or damaged body cells by binding to them and bombarding them with lethal chemicals called cytokines. ( Kaser) Since T cells can attack cells directly, they must be able to discriminate between “self” cells (those of the body) and “nonself” cells (foreign invaders). To enable the immune system to distinguish the self, each body cell carries identifying molecules on its surface. T cells likely to react against the self are usually eliminated before leaving the thymus; the remaining T cells recognize the molecular markers and coexist peaceably with body tissues in a state of self-tolerance. In autoimmune diseases such as MS, the detente between the immune system and the body is disrupted when the immune system seems to wrongly identify self as nonself and declares war on the part of the body (myelin) it no longer recognizes. (Hauser) Through intensive research efforts, scientists are unraveling the complex secrets of the malfunctioning immune system of patients with MS. Components of myelin such as myelin basic protein have been the focus of much research because, when injected into laboratory animals, they can precipitate experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), a chronic relapsing brain and spinal cord disease that resembles MS. The injected myelin probably stimulates the immune system to produce anti-myelin T cells that attack the animal’s own myelin. (Leuven) Investigators are also looking for abnormalities or malfunctions in the blood/brain barrier, a protective membrane that controls the passage of substances from the blood into the central nervous system. It is possible that, in MS, components of the immune system get through the barrier and cause nervous system damage. Scientists have studied a number of infectious agents (such as viruses) that have been suspected of causing MS, but have been unable to implicate any one particular agent. (Mayo Clinic) Viral infections are usually accompanied by inflammation and the production of gamma interferon, a naturally occurring body chemical that has been shown to worsen the clinical course of MS. It is possible that the immune response to viral infections may themselves precipitate an MS attack. The genes a person inherits may help determine whether that person is at increased risk for developing MS. ( Melvin) While there is evidence from studies that this genetic component exists, it appears to be only one factor among several. Most likely an individual s genetic blueprint ultimately determines if that individual will be susceptible to a triggering factor, which in turn initiates the autoimmune process that leads to the development of MS. In the past few years, scientists have developed a set of tools that gives them the ability to pinpoint the genetic factors that make a person susceptible to MS. These tools are the methods of molecular genetics techniques used to isolate and determine the chemical structure of genes. (Colin) In the 1980s, scientists began to apply the tools of molecular genetics to human diseases caused by defects in single genes. This work led to major advances in understanding diseases such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis. The situation for diseases such as multiple sclerosis is more complicated. Scientists now believe that a person is susceptible to multiple sclerosis only if he or she inherits an unlucky combination of several genes. (Colin) Advances in molecular genetics and the identification of large families in which several members have MS “multiplex” MS families have made possible research to uncover MS susceptibility genes. Since 1991, the National MS Society has supported an international project searching for these genes. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) However, even though genetic (inherited) factors seem to play a large role in the development of MS, no single MS gene has been identified so far. Instead, scientists suspect that MS develops because of the influence of several genes acting together. Many multiplex families from throughout the world have agreed to participate in these studies. The researchers are looking for patterns of genetic material that are consistently inherited by people with MS. These recognizable patterns are called “DNA markers.” (Melvin) When one of these markers is identified, scientists focus on that area, seeking additional markers closer to that gene. Eventually the location of that gene can be identified. This process of moving closer to the gene until it is identified has to be repeated for each of the marker regions from the multiplex families. (Melvin) By 1996, as many as 20 locations that may contain genes contributing to MS were identified, but no single gene was shown to have a major influence on susceptibility to MS. (Melvin) Research will likely find that other, as yet unidentified, genes contribute to MS. After the location of each susceptibility gene is identified, the role that the gene plays in the immune system and neuralgic aspects of people with MS will have to be determined. Because the immune system is so involved in MS, many scientists think at least some of the susceptibility genes are related to the immune system. Already there have been reports linking some immune system genes to MS. Further indications that more than one gene is involved in MS susceptibility comes from studies of families in which more than one member has MS. Several research teams found that people with MS inherit certain regions on individual genes more frequently than people without MS. Of particular interest is the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) or major histocompatibility complex region on chromosome 6. HLAs are genetically determined proteins that influence the immune system. ( Kaser) The HLA patterns of MS patients tend to be different from those of people without the disease. Investigations in northern Europe and America have detected three HLAs that are more prevalent in people with MS than in the general population. Studies of American MS patients have shown that people with MS also tend to exhibit these HLAs in combination–that is, they have more than one of the three HLAs–more frequently than the rest of the population. Furthermore, there is evidence that different combinations of the HLAs may correspond to variations in disease severity and progression. (Kaser) Studies of families with multiple cases of MS and research comparing genetic regions of humans to those of mice with EAE suggest that another area related to MS susceptibility may be located on chromosome 5. Other regions on chromosomes 2, 3, 7, 11, 17, 19, and X have also been identified as possibly containing genes involved in the development of MS. (Hauser) These studies strengthen the theory that MS is the result of a number of factors rather than a single gene or other agent. Development of MS is likely to be influenced by the interactions of a number of genes, each of which (individually) has only a modest effect. Additional studies are needed to specifically pinpoint which genes are involved, determine their function, and learn how each gene’s interactions with other genes and with the environment make an individual susceptible to MS. In addition to leading to better ways to diagnose MS, such studies should yield clues to the underlying causes of MS and, eventually, to better treatments or a way to prevent the disease. (Ronthal) Finding the genes responsible for susceptibility to MS may lead to the development of new and more effective ways to treat the disease. Such research could also uncover the basic cause of the disease and help predict the course of the disease in an individual. This would make it easier for physicians to tailor therapies and provide information to help people make life decisions. Another possible benefit may be the early diagnosis of people in families where one or more member already has MS. Many physicians believe that the earlier MS is diagnosed and treatment begun, the better the outcome will be. Symptoms of MS may be mild or severe, of long duration or short, and may appear in various combinations, depending on the area of the nervous system affected. Complete or partial remission of symptoms, especially in the early stages of the disease, occurs in approximately 70 percent of MS patients. The initial symptom of MS is often blurred or double vision, red-green color distortion, or even blindness in one eye. (Brunnscheiler) Inexplicably, visual problems tend to clear up in the later stages of MS. Inflammatory problems of the optic nerve may be diagnosed as retrobulbar or optic neuritis. Fifty-five percent of MS patients will have an attack of optic neuritis at some time or other and it will be the first symptom of MS in approximately 15 percent. This has led to general recognition of optic neuritis as an early sign of MS, especially if tests also reveal abnormalities in the patient’s spinal fluid. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) Most MS patients experience muscle weakness in their extremities and difficulty with coordination and balance at some time during the course of the disease. These symptoms may be severe enough to impair walking or even standing. In the worst cases, MS can produce partial or complete paralysis. Spasticity, the involuntary increased tone of muscles leading to stiffness and spasms–is common, as is fatigue. (Brunnscheiler) Fatigue may be triggered by physical exertion and improve with rest, or it may take the form of a constant and persistent tiredness. Most people with MS also exhibit paresthesias, transitory abnormal sensory feelings such as numbness, prickling, or “pins and needles” sensations; uncommonly, some may also experience pain. Loss of sensation sometimes occurs. Speech impediments, tremors, and dizziness are other frequent complaints. Occasionally, people with MS have hearing loss. (Brunnscheiler; National Multiple Sclerosis Society) Approximately half of all people with MS experience cognitive impairments such as difficulties with concentration, attention, memory, and poor judgment, but such symptoms are usually mild and are frequently overlooked. In fact, they are often detectable only through comprehensive testing. Patients themselves may be unaware of their cognitive loss; it is often a family member or friend who first notices a deficit. Such impairments are usually mild, rarely disabling, and intellectual and language abilities are generally spared. (Brunnscheiler) Cognitive symptoms occur when lesions develop in brain areas responsible for information processing. (Brunnscheiler) These deficits tend to become more apparent as the information to be processed becomes more complex. Fatigue may also add to processing difficulties. Scientists do not yet know whether altered cognition in MS reflects problems with information acquisition, retrieval, or a combination of both. Types of memory problems may differ depending on the individual’s disease course (relapsing-remitting, primary-progressive, etc.), but there does not appear to be any direct correlation between duration of illness and severity of cognitive dysfunction. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) Depression, which is unrelated to cognitive problems, is another common feature of MS. (Brunnscheiler) In addition, about 10 percent of patients suffer from more severe psychotic disorders such as manic-depression and paranoia. Five percent may experience episodes of inappropriate euphoria and despair–unrelated to the patient’s actual emotional state known as “laughing/weeping syndrome.” This syndrome is thought to be due to demyelination in the brainstem, the area of the brain that controls facial expression and emotions, and is usually seen only in severe cases. (National Multiple Sclerosis Society) As the disease progresses, sexual dysfunction may become a problem. Bowel and bladder control may also be lost. (Health Central) In about 60 percent of MS patients, heat, whether generated by temperatures outside the body or by exercise may cause temporary worsening of many MS symptoms. In these cases, eradicating the heat eliminates the problem. Some temperature-sensitive patients find that a cold bath may temporarily relieve their symptoms. For the same reason, swimming is often a good exercise choice for people with MS. (Wenzel) The erratic symptoms of MS can affect the entire family as patients may become unable to work at the same time they are facing high medical bills and additional expenses for housekeeping assistance and modifications to homes and vehicles. The emotional drain on both patient and family is immeasurable. Counseling may help MS patients, their families, and friends find ways to cope with the many problems the disease can cause. (Lambert) There is as yet no cure for MS. Many patients do well with no therapy at all, especially since many medications have serious side effects and some carry significant risks. (Health Central) Naturally occurring or spontaneous remissions make it difficult to determine therapeutic effects of experimental treatments; however, the emerging evidence that MRIs can chart the development of lesions is already helping scientists evaluate new therapies. Until recently, the principal medications physicians used to treat MS were steroids possessing anti-inflammatory properties; these include adrenocorticotropic hormone (better known as ACTH), prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, betamethasone, and dexamethasone. Studies suggest that intravenous methylprednisolone may be superior to the more traditional intravenous ACTH for patients experiencing acute relapses; no strong evidence exists to support the use of these drugs to treat progressive forms of MS. Also, there is some indication that steroids may be more appropriate for people with movement, rather than sensory, symptoms. (Mayo Clinic) While steroids do not affect the course of MS over time, they can reduce the duration and severity of attacks in some patients. The mechanism behind this effect is not known; one study suggests the medications work by restoring the effectiveness of the blood/brain barrier. Because steroids can produce numerous adverse side effects (acne, weight gain, seizures, psychosis), they are not recommended for long-term use. (Bernard) One of the most promising MS research areas involves naturally occurring antiviral proteins known as interferons. Two forms of beta interferon (Avonex and Betaseron) have now been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of relapsing-remitting MS. A third form (Rebif) is marketed in Europe. Beta interferon has been shown to reduce the number of exacerbation s and may slow the progression of physical disability. When attacks do occur, they tend to be shorter and less severe. In addition, MRI scans suggest that beta interferon can decrease myelin destruction. (Mayo Clinic) Investigators speculate that the effects of beta interferon may be due to the drug’s ability to correct an MS-related deficiency of certain white blood cells that suppress the immune system and/or its ability to inhibit gamma interferon, a substance believed to be involved in MS attacks. Alpha interferon is also being studied as a possible treatment for MS. (Mayo Clinic) Common side effects of interferons include fever, chills, sweating, muscle aches, fatigue, depression, and injection site reactions. (Health Central) Scientists continue their extensive efforts to create new and better therapies for MS. Goals of therapy are threefold: to improve recovery from attacks, to prevent or lessen the number of relapses, and to halt disease progression. In conclusion, MS is a disease that is well known but poorly understood by the medical and nursing community as well as the general public. It has no known cure and the genes that are accountable for it have yet been pin pointed. The United States is capable of finding a cure for this disease; over the years, medical researchers have found cures for many diseases that were thought incurable. Not only time and money are needed to find a cure for this disease, but faith and heart are needed to realize the importance.

Bibliography:

Works Cited

Bernard, Bobby. Multiple Sclerosis Continues to Puzzle Scientists. The Vermillion March 1998

Brunnscheiler, H. Problems Associated with MS, 28 July, 1999

Inteli Health http://www.intelihealth.com, 28 July, 1999

Boyden, Kathleen M. Compolmer-1 in the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing, 5 October 1998

Waxman, Stephen. Demyelinating Diseases — New Pathological Insights, New Therapeutic Targets. New England Journal of Medicine 29 Jan. 1998, Vol. 338, No. 5, 323-327.

Hofmann, Robert. Health Central General Information about Multiple Sclerosis

16 July, 1999

Kaser, Arthur. Inter Multiple Sclerosis American Journal of Human Genetics June 1998, 62:492-495

Multiple Sclerosis

Name of Student

Name of Institution

Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease that disrupts information-flow between the body and brain, and also within the brain. It is a disabling, unpredictable disease that targets the central nervous system. Its cause is yet unknown and is assumed to be exposure to environmental factors, also unknown, to people who may react. The total number of victims are unknown but are estimated to be over two million world over. The unknown number of victims is because the symptoms may be completely invisible and because responsible bodies have not been required to register new cases.

The contraction of this disease is based on several risk factors the first of which is age. Studies on research data have shown that the age group of between fifteen to sixty have the highest likelihood of getting the disease. The other risk factors are gender, family history, certain infections, race, climate, lifestyle and certain autoimmune diseases. Lifestyle, smoking for instance, makes an individual to be more inclined to register the second series of attack on the central nervous system(CNS)(Weiner, 2005). These attacks are thought to be done by the immune system of the body that has lost some of its purpose of protecting the body(Phelps, 2010). Whilst both men and women are victims of this terrible disease, most of the cases have been registered in women. Women therefore, have been deduced to be more inclined to contract the illness than their male counterparts(Weiner, 2005). Through study on race and family history, it has been concluded that white people especially from Northern Europe or of this decency are more vulnerable. They have reported more cases unlike their Asian, African and Native Americans counterparts(Phelps, 2010). People who have type 1 diabetes, the thyroid disease, the inflammatory bowel disease, and other viral infections that have been linked to the MS are also more likely to develop it(Longnecker, 2008). The infections make patients susceptible to the symptomatic development of the Multiple Sclerosis. Climate is thought to affect the contraction rates as individuals from the more temperate regions have been affected a lot less than individuals from the colder parts of the globe(Longnecker, 2008).

The objectives/ aims and purposes of this study are highlighted in the following sentences. First, the resarch study aims to identify the target group/ the groups that have fallen more victims to MS. The second objective is to identify the typical symptoms of MS and the root causes of these symptoms. Thirdly, the study analyzes the fatality and effects of MS, the effectiveness of the diagnosis and available treatment.

Research Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a statement of investigation for a researcher. Usually, the development of a theory is based on an assembly of facts organized in an intricate pattern such that a relationship arises therefrom. The resultant theory has more meaning and is more concrete because it has its backing on substantial facts (Martin & Bridgmon, 2012). From that point, relationships that do not ackmowledge individual facts in a theory are examined. When doing this, the researcher normally has little knowledge of the correctness of the relationships he or she attributes to the facts. These formulated relationships are what make up a hypothesis. A verified hypothesis is sufficient ground to interpret a particular theory in the future. Essentially, the hypothesis is a predictor of something unknown (Martin & Bridgmon, 2012). Such prediction can be tested to ascertain whether it is valid. During such testing, the prediction may turn out to be in line with common sense. In the same measure, the prediction could turn out to be correct or incorrect. Overall, the testing is empirical. This means that the outcome is not necessarily important so long as it is an answer to the prediction. Overall, a hypothesis serves the function of relating different phenomena in some way to permit an empirical analysis of the same. This function calls for a research design that eventually proves or disproves the hypothesis based on the data gathered during the research (Martin & Bridgmon, 2012).

Hypothesis 1

Among people with multiple sclerosis, there is no difference in recurrent fall frequency with and without physical therapy.

Hypothesis 2

Among people with multiple sclerosis, there is a difference in recurrent fall frequency with and without physical therapy.

The research is also guided by the following thesis and antithesis.

Thesis: Physical therapy helps prevent recurrent falls in people with multiple sclerosis.

Antithesis: Physical therapy does not help prevent recurrent falls in people with multiple sclerosis.

The nature of this disease is not clear yet to scientists in this field. This research proposal examines some of the facts behind the MS and restates clarity.

The Background of Multiple Sclerosis

The first case of multiple sclerosis was registered in Rotterdam in the late 1300s on a woman who has been canonized as St. Lidwina. Through to the 1800s, no one understood really this disease. Over the years, individual cases of MS have been stated in great detail. Jean-Martin Charcot, the father of modern neurology, introduced the first cohesive perspective of MS in 1869(Longnecker, 2008). The diagnosis of MS is not easy but has been made simpler to technicians by introduction of technically advanced resources. Previously, there were no neurologists with the skill to carry out this diagnosis. At the moment, the FDA approved treatments for MS are six(Longnecker, 2008). There are also seventy new therapies at different stages of trial which will be tested at Stanford. There’s a Multiple Sclerosis center at Stanford that has a team of highly qualified neurologists offering a special diagnostics and treatment. The treatment offers comprehensive individualized care combined with great research opportunities. It also has access to clinical trials and state-of-the-art technology that include the electrodiagnostics and the Magnetic Resonance Imaging(MRI). It has services like immunology infusion, information on current treatment and research and follow-up services.

Early Signs and Symptoms of MS

It has symptoms that include optic neuritis(vision problem). In this case, an individual’s central vision is disrupted because of the inflammation of the optic nerve. The degenerative effect is slow so this makes the vision problem not be noticed immediately. The other symptom is numbness and tingling on the fingers, arms, legs and face. This occurs when the MS affects the brain and spinal column prompting them to send mixed signals(Longnecker, 2008). Involuntary spasms of muscles and chronic pain are also common occurrences. The condition also comes with knee jerking movements that are involuntary and extremely painful. The third symptom is unexplained weakness and fatigue that affects e80% of victims at the early stages of the infection(Weiner, 2005).. MS is also characterized by problems in balance coupled with dizziness. Also affecting an up to 80% population of total victims, problems with the bladder, bowls and sexual dysfunctions also characterize MS. The problems occur because most of these activities are controlled by the central nervous system that is attacked by the MS(Weiner, 2005). Problems with language, memory loss, shortened attention span and reduced levels of concentration mark another symptom. The cognitive malfunction affects at least half the total victims. Major depression and the pseudo bulbar affect are also common among people with the MS. Other symptoms may include seizures, memory loss, uncontrollable shaking, breathing problems, slurred speech and problems in swallowing(Longnecker, 2008).

There are mixed information on the group that is targeted by the Multiple Sclerosis. Whilst previously scientists still held on to the ground that it affects no particular group or race of the human, contradictory information and research have proven otherwise. Scientists have now observed that the Multiple Sclerosis is more common among people from Northern Europe, or of this line of decency(Weiner, 2005). They hold that it has become more common among the Latino or people with Latino backgrounds. Their research holds that people of African decency, Asians or Native Americans have the lowest risk. The findings of this research has a created a presumption that vitamin D plays a factor in the level of risk. People around the equator, who are exposed to more sunlight hence more vitamin D, have low levels of risk of contraction(Longnecker, 2008).

The MS is not easy to diagnose because the early warning signs are always not directly associated with it as they are also caused by other conditions(Weiner, 2005). Symptoms like poor vision and memory loss are often handled for what they are because MS tend to appear with different symptoms in victims. The MS is not easy to diagnose because it has no single tests. It also takes time because diagnosis can only be confirmed after evidence of at least two episodes of activities of the disease on the central nervous system(Longnecker, 2008). Despite all the challenges however, a series of technical advances have been made that make the whole process possible, though it still is gradual.

There are no death cases directly linked to the Multiple Sclerosis. The medication has also been considered very safe with mild side effects. Though conditions like severe pulmonary complications, severe sepsis and aspiration pneumonia may lead to death. Aspiration Pneumonia is a result of deposition of food and liquid particles in the respiratory tract as a result of difficulty in swallowing. Poor nutrition, decreased sensation, immobility/ inactivity and bladder incontinence may cause sepsis, especially if left untreated. The MS also limits an individual’s ability to exercise, weakens their muscles and make them vulnerable to other infections. It is the contraction of such diseases like cancer, heart complications and stroke that may lead to an individual’s demise. Cases of victims committing suicide to avoid the problems they are going through have also been reported. Multiple Sclerosis is therefore not directly fatal, but both the physical and mental conditions that come with it are what may be fatal(Longnecker, 2008).

The MS has no permanent cure and the only available treatments are control measures(Jelinek, 2010). A number of disease-modifying drugs have been proven to slow the progression of MS in some people. These drugs suppress or alter the activities of the body’s immune system and are based on the theory that the immune system attacks the myelin surrounding nerves. The drugs serve to reduce the development of new brain lesions and the frequency and severity of attacks like the convulsions. Early diagnosis is very important as it creates time to find the drug that a patient can use comfortably. It also helps in curbing the developments of the disease, by slowing its growth and advances from early stages.

The objectives that have been set for this research proposal serves to explain diagnosis and treatments for MS. They also examine vulnerability of some individuals and the environmental factors that propagate this disease.

The Conceptual Framework of The Proposal.

Multiple Sclerosis

Factors for InfectionSymptoms

environmental, diet, gender, geneticweakening of muscles, breathing problems, cognitive problems, balance problems, dizziness and fatigue

DiagnosisOther Infections

MRI, Cerebrospinal Fluid(CSF), Respiratory Pneumonia, Heart attacks

Evoked Potentials(EP)Sepsis

Treatment/ Control

Drugs-oral and injections(intravenous, subcutaneous, intrathecal)Therapy

This conceptual framework explains the relationship among the variables of the proposal. The independent variable is the factors for infection. It leads to infection and symptoms. The symptoms lead to diagnosis, other infections and treatment. Diagnosis, affected by symptoms, also lead to treatment and control.

Research Methodology

Introduction

This proposal identifies the target group of the proposal and the reasons for their high likelihood of infection. Research conducted on information throughout the years from the first case in 1300 to date have pointed to geographical locations among other factors. The other factors include lifestyle, genetically factors and climatic factors. The research points out that people from a place of high infection rate who move out before puberty reduce the levels of risks. Now whilst diet and lifestyle may be the same among different populations, factors like climate and family trees make others more susceptible to infections. Most cases of MS are not diagnosed early because of the less obvious symptoms. The proposal examines the symptoms and their relation to each other. It scrutinizes the irregular symptomatic infections because so far, to two known patients have suffered from symptoms at the same rate, stage and style. The symptoms are always bare, but there are no measures that can help medics diagnose MS. The only option is to wait for the second attack by the Ms on the central nervous system and this takes time. The time taken/ lost leads to further development of the Multiple Sclerosis yet the earlier its arrested, the better and more stable an individual’s condition remains.

The MS itself has proven to be controllable, but the diseases/ opportunistic infections that may set in as its result have adverse effects (Jelinek, 2010). Through therapy and administering of drugs, the adverse effect of the immune system on the central nervous system is reduced. This leaves the patient in a more stable state. But the problems it causes like weakened muscles lets in other infections like heart diseases. Patients diagnosed with Multiple Sclerosis leave in fear of these other infections than their primary health state.

The Study Design

This research proposal adopts a qualitative design. It examines whether physical therapy helps avoid recurrent falls among people with Multiple Sclerosis. Information about the subject were collected through questionnaires, interviews and observations. This is a narrative research that has focused on a particular individual. Data in this research have been gathered through the collection and study of his testimonials.

Intervention

Multiple Sclerosis lacks a cure but measures to control it have been implemented(Weiner, 2005). Drugs that target to reduce the activities of the immune system, which is believed to be the primary cause of the disease, have been invented(Jelinek, 2010). When the immune system’s activities that target the central nervous system have been reduced, the speed with which the MS advances is curbed. The other mode of intervention is through the Behavioral Intervention. This has been effective in improving depression, motor function as well as fatigue. It has the potential to modify the disease by ameliorating the symptoms.

The method of intervention recommended by this study is therapy. There are two kinds of therapy that have been employed in the intervention against Multiple Sclerosis. The first is Physical Therapy(PT). The Physical Therapy can be used to intervene on the following symptoms; fatigue, walking difficulties, weaknesses, poor balance/ fall risk. It can also be used to intervene on stiffness, spasms and spasticity, pain, tremor/ ataxia, sensory changes that include proprioception and decreased functional independence. The second is Occupational Therapy(OT). The Occupational Therapy can be used to intervene on fatigue, weakness, balance/ fall risk, stiffness, spasms, spasticity and cognitive changes. It can also intervene on reduced manual dexterity, pain, tremor/ ataxia and sensory changes that include proprioception(Jelinek, 2010).

The reason for choice of therapy is that unlike drugs and medication, it just do not try to stop the development of the disease. It makes an attempt at reversing some of the conditions. It recreates psyche where hope had been lost, serves to strengthen weakened muscles and encourages a victim to take on the conditions head on. Occupational Therapy does not let the victim mentally fall into a state of regression, instead it instills in him the confidence to fight back and hold on.

Study Sample

The study is conducted at The Walden University Department of Online Students Registered with Disability. The choice for Walden University is factored by the love for the students whose mobility have been impaired. It therefore has a wide base from which proper and detailed information on Multiple Sclerosis, the biggest cause for mobility impairment.

Sampling Strategy

There are four sampling strategies overly. They include simple random, systematic, stratified random and cluster sampling strategies. The strategy chosen for this study is the systematic in which the produced samples are treated as random. It addresses the following issues. The first issue is to get sincere respondents who can help avoid response bias. Response bias results when a respondent deliberately conceals information from the researcher for various reasons. The second strategy is to help avoid non-response especially when respondents fail to answer phone calls, turn up for meetings or fill questionnaires. The third strategy is to get detailed full-cycle information. Therefore, the respondents should be experienced and well versed with social and scientific factors on Multiple Sclerosis(Jelinek, 2010).

Sampling frames

A sampling frame is the list of all the intendeded respondents for a study(Sparks, 2010). It is a list or other device, that a researcher uses to define his population of interest(Douglas, 2011). The randomness of choice of sampling depends on the level of accuracy of information required by the study(Velma, 2009). The element is introduced by picking a random number from and with which the selection should be started and based. Its samples form a block sample frame. There are two kinds of sampling frames which are list and non-list. Rarely can a researcher get direct contact to the population of his interests. The researcher must therefore rely upon a sampling frame to create a representation of all the elements of the population of interest(Jerry, 2009).

In this study, one in every ten students will be chosen to form a list sample frame. The sampling strategy and the sampling frames give a total of three group samples/ lists for the study.

Allocation of Treatment Arms

The three groups are then subjected to the three different methods of intervention. Every is allocated a different method from the previous. The purpose of different allocation is to verify/ compare the efficiency of each of the three intervention techniques to Multiple Sclerosis. The first group, marked as I, is subjected to medical intervention. The second group, marked as II, is subjected to the behavioral intervention. The third group is subjected to intervention by use of therapy, this group is christened group III.

The study variables

There are three variables for a research study. These are the dependent, independent and the confounding variables. The validity and reliability of a research study is increased when the variables are controlled by ensuring that the causal effects are eliminated(Jerry, 2009). It is also known as isolation of the independent variable. The process of isolating the independent variable, involves changing the other variables into consonants. Eradication of the research variables involves employing scientific measurements to negate or nullify them(Velma, 2010).

The research study on Multiple Sclerosis will have two variables that will govern the style of research after the conversion of the variables of research into constants. They include the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable of the study is physical therapy whilst the dependent variable is the falls in people with multiple sclerosis. This study does not bear a confounding variable.

Methods of Data Collection

Though a part of the research is observational, most of the data collection is conducted through survey. Methods like the use of questionnaires and interviews are employed. The reason for survey is to improve the level of communication with the respondents to get even their personal information. Survey improves precision and clarity of information as no research content is based upon assumptions. Questionnaires are distributed to the respondents/ members of the sample frames/ groups. The best response is then picked from the questionnaires once they have been submitted by the respondents. The respondent who filled the questionnaire is visited for an interview. The process is tedious but very effective.

Data Management

Data management is the manner in which data collected from a study is handled to serve the purposes of the study and also serve as a base of reference for future studies(Jelinek, 2010). When done effectively, data management helps in achieving clarity and cohesion of a research and study and intended future studies as well(Jerry, 2009). There are set procedural and order/ steps and guidelines for Data Management. The first is data collection from the recipients, then Data maintenance, storage, validation/ correction and manipulation(Jerry, 2009). The steps before precede data views, access, security and documentation(Jelinek, 2010). To achieve a high level of efficiency, this research study aims to follow the data management protocol.

Data mangement will be conducted is described in the paragraph herein. The recipients mail back their responses/ questionnaires. The questionnaires are then filed according to the samples/ groups that had earlier been set and marked as I, II and III respectively. The collected data is then validated and corrected to comply with the scientifically facts. Responses based on mythical theories without a scientific support are cancelled. The data is then extracted and changed into essays. The process of extraction is also known as Data Manipulation and Reporting.

The views and responses of the data must be clearly outlined in the essay. Relevant explanations are given where necessary to give clarity and make observational references. The data of this research findings should be made accessible to researcher’s and victims for future references. To make this easier, there should be hardcopies of the findings in the order of educational journals. A report on the data is also made as part of the documentation procedures.

Data Analysis

The aims of this research are to determine the number and incidences of MS patients with fall incidences while analyzing the effects that the condition has on the patients’ life, work and education

The paper also examines the effectiveness of the PT and OT in slowing down the advancements of the disability and reducing the frequency of falls . The General Practice Research Database and Hospital Episode Statistics data (Creswel, 2014) is the preferred method of data analysis for this study. Based on patient records and hospital intervention, the two methods will enable accurate compilation and analysis of data.

General Practice Research Database (GPRD)

The calculations on the follow up durations per patient are done annually to determine the fall incidences of patients per year and whether a diagnosis has occurred due to such falls (Carlin & Louis, 2008). The fall incidences will be estimated using passion regression models with logarithm (time at risk) as the offset variable (Martin & Bridgmon, 2012). The gender analysis is done separately and year and age are used as the variables for the models.

Hospital Episode Statistics (HES)

The available HES data for the patient population will be analyzed. Estimates of fall incidences within the time duration will be made using the GPRD data (Ott & Longnecker, 2008). The fall incidence rates will then be calculated using extra diagnosis from HES. Age-specific rates of fall incidence will be estimated from inverse polynomials and fitted to ratio cases from GPRD and HES versus GPRD alone (Creswel, 2014).

Dissemination of Research

Victims of Multiple Sclerosis are the main stakeholders in this research proposal. They are the focal point of the research. Because of their immediate contacts with the MS patients, the families and friends have information on the effects of this disease. The information that is firsthand, especially on the falling incidences and they should be handled is vital to the research(Martin & Bridgmon, 2012). For this reason these family members will also be part of the processes of the research. Research institutions that include health facilities and professionals, schools and their staffs and members of the community also play a vital role as stakeholders in this research. The reason for this is that they are privy to information on research and challenges faced by the victims of MS.

There is a need and necessity to formulate Government policies galvanizing the education and employment of MS patients. The victims always get victimized and discriminated against because of their sluggish movements and mobility problems. For this reason, Government representatives will also take part in the research. The media will also take part as the issue of MS fall incidences is a serious issue that should attract public awareness (Jelinek, 2012). They not only come to create awareness on the fall cases and reasons for fall, but also to decampaign the discrimination against the MS patients. Lastly, the research will source for sponsors who will also become part of the project to evaluate its progress and look into matters of transparency and accountability.

Ethical Issues

Physicians assert that in cases of probable diagnosis, at the early stages before the second attack on the CNS, patients should not be informed of the contraction of the disease. They base this on the argument that a medic’s first role is not to create panic but to relieve patients of pain (Phelps & Hassed, 2012). Telling patients the truth, they argue, could trigger mental agony rather than give patients a piece of mind. Justification for this is that the early phases of MS do not exhibit serious falls. Moreover, it is hard to precisely predict future experiences (Phelps & Hassed, 2012). Most patients will not understand anything about such future experiences.

Respect for persons calls for voluntary informed consent plus adequate patient information regarding the research aims, procedure, methods, potential risks and anticipated benefits (Phelps & Hassed, 2012). Patient autonomy is a very crucial principle – patients should be allowed freedom of expression, comment and adjustment as the research progresses. Moreover, when analyzing the benefits and risks of the research, they should be weighed critically based on the potential benefits of new interventions against the current ones (Phelps & Hassed, 2012). Lastly, justice should prevail when selecting the participants in the research. There should be no reasons other than ethical or scientific ones for including participants into the research.

The need to source for funding makes it necessary to seek IRB approval. The IB approval only comes when the validity of the research is clearly stated and emphasized. This research has its relevance steeped in the statements that follow. It articulates the woes and tribulations of the MS patients at school, work and even in their everyday life. Policy statements have been slow to capture the problems faced by the victims of MS. The key factor for this is that the research and reports made about this filed have not been sufficient. The research findings of this proposal therefore will serve to enhance policy development and create awareness concerning Multiple Sclerosis.

Secondly, assurances on the respondents/ participants ‘safety throughout the research have to be paramount. The research aims at participation of MS patients and other stakeholders at free will. During the research, measures to control and lessen any jeopardy/ risks of harm that might suffice during the research will be put in place. Moreover, there will be an efficient consent procedure whereby no participant feels compelled to take part in the research. In addition, withdrawal decisions will be honored. Lastly, before seeking IRB approval, the respondents’ perceptions on the research will be clarified.

References

Bowling, A. (2014). Optimal Health with Multiple Sclerosis: A Guide to Integrating Lifestyle,

Alternative, and Conventional Medicine… New York: Springer

Carlin, B. P. and Louis, T. A. (2008). Bayesian Methods for Data Analysis. New York: Springer

Creswell, J. W. (2014). Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. California:

SAGE Publications

Jelinek, G. (2010). Overcoming Multiple Sclerosis: An Evidence-Based Guide to Recovery.

Australia: Allen & Uwin

Martin, W. E. and Bridgmon, K. D. (2012). Quantitative and Statistical Research Methods:

From Hypothesis to Results. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Ott, R. L. and Longnecker, M. T. (2008). An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data

Analysis. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning

Phelps, K. and Hassed, C. (2010). General Practice – Inkling: The Integrative Approach.

Australia: Churchil Livingstone

Weiner, H. L. (2005). Curing MS: How Science Is Solving the Mysteries of Multiple Sclerosis.

New York: Crown Publishing Group

Chapter 10 Reflection- Feminism

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Chapter 10 Reflection- Feminism

Even though women were not highly involved in issues to do with criminal justice during the 1970s, they began to get highly involved in this field. Feminist theories are considered to be part of conflict theories. They came around during the 1970s when conflict explanations were popular and focused on conflict perspectives and male-based theories. There was a need for equity and equality in terms of treatment at home and work regarding crime. Before the onset of feminism, theories concerning criminal justice women were rarely brought to courts unless they did something huge. However, in the desire to be more like men and have an equal share in society, they began being apprehended for their crimes. Therefore feminism theory is an example of conflict theory. One gender of a society is considered weak, and there is a lack of equity and justice based on gender.

Reference

Williams III, F.P., & McShane, M.D. (2018). Criminological theory (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Law Book Summary – Chapter 10, 11 & 12

Student’s Name

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Chapter 10: The Limits of Social Control

The American and Iraqi relationship was crushed due to inevitable disagreements concerning the consent age. Marej and Latif were refugees living in Lincoln, and they both decided it was time they got themselves married. A fellow Iraq refugee told the two that he had two daughters, and he would like them to be married. The marriage arrangements were made, and hence, the two daughters became wives to Marej and Latif. It was until the two girls ran away that the husbands reported to the police on the missing ladies, that questions spark on the marriage. On investigation, the two ladies ran out as they did not consent to be married at the time. According to the Iraqi Islamic custom, the two ladies were officially married, and everyone at the camp was happy. Nonetheless, the two ladies were aged thirteen and fourteen. According to the United States laws, the two men had committed multiple accounts of rape on the minors. Thus, they were supposed to spend over fifty years in prison, paying for the crime. The Iraqi people were not happy and saw this as an injustice upon the two fellows.

Vice crime is any activity that offends the moral standards of the people. The crime is covered in public order offense, victimless crimes, and consensual offenses. The consensual principle was violated with Iraq, who did not consider the ladies’ willingness to get married. Hence, the harm principle applies in the case. The harm principle is where the prosecutor examines the elements of a crime to prove that the accused are guilty. The nature of the crime is analyzed, and the offenders are either declared innocent or guilty. If a person willingly swings their arms with too much force, making the arm to dislocate, the person has not harmed anyone but themselves. Therefore, victimization is where a person’s actions have negatively affected other people around them. Thus, liable for any damage and losses incurred by the other party. Debates are still ongoing on whether the state is justified to interfere with the privacy rights of individuals. For Example, if a person commits adultery, it may lead to other ripple effects where the family breaks down, and the children are mentally and physically affected. Thus, resulting in hurt, pain, anger as some of the children may even attempt to take their own lives. Some societies have taken action as a severe violation, which results in death. The communities are justified by the bible on the matter, also on the effect that adultery causes to the people around. The establishment of such moral courts is still debated, and there is a need to find a solution to such vices.

Homosexuality and sodomy are considered severe crimes in old societies yet readily accepted in the United States. The results of sodomy, just like adultery, was death. For years, the American people believed that sodomy was a psychiatric problem hence readily admitted the people in the mental institutions. Recently, homosexuality has been removed from the list of mental diseases. In modern society, the choice is granted to people on how they choose to use their bodies and selves as long as it does affect other people. The concept is genuine, but some of the choices affect other individuals indirectly; thus, the justification of some of the acts is still debatable. Actions such as prostitution can either be criminalized or taken as a matter of choice on the people who chose to indulge in the activities. Nonetheless, the commercialization of prostitution may result in the disruption of the community. Abortion, the use of illicit drugs, and pornography are also under consideration of the nation’s moral principle and the effect of such acts on the general population.

Chapter 11: Law, Social Change and the Class Struggle

The British Prime minister, Churchill, was knocked down by a cab as he tried to cross the road in New York. The man was found with a whiskey bottle, which led to the criminalization of alcohol beverages transportation, manufacture, and sale. Drinking is associated with many kinds of accidents, which was evident to people who tried to form campaigns, advocating for change in people’s social lives. The intention was not to prevent people from drinking but the effects associated with uncontrolled behaviors. The associated evils should be controlled, and the consequences of people’s acts enforced. The need for social change was characterized by values, norms, attitudes, and the need to form sustainable relationships. In the past, people lived together entirely dependent on the norms and values, which kept the society glued. The people who resist social change are bound to benefit from the nation’s current situation. Also, some people are psychologically disturbed by social change, thus the need to let society stay in its current form.

The law has taken a minor role in upholding its role in enabling social change. Today the law seems to be controlled by the politics that exist in the environment. The people force the law to react to the vices by holding rallies and other campaigns against injustices. The law is not active but proactive; hence, losing its meaning in protecting the people and creating a sustainable society. The social movements in society pursue the goal of enforcing the law due to the aggrieved, and those denied justice. Nonetheless, the pursuit of justice in any society is reliant on the democracy of the country. Conflict is a function of democracy, as, without conflict, the rights of the people would be violated. People search for peace and co-existence with one another through negotiations of fighting. The abolition of the slave movement was also a result of the social movement.

The law has played a significant role in making the United States what it is today. The British legislations were made to make Americans pay their share of the war, but instead, it worked to defend them. Unlike other countries like Russia and France, the American war was a legal affair with many ripple effects. For Example, the revolutions that took place, leading to independence was fought by the English constitution. After the war, offenses were charged against George III, a violation of British legal principles. The sovereignty of the law was declared; hence, all the people could be governed under the law and punish any violations. George II was placing himself above the law, which led to the American Revolution, realizing its importance.

The role of the law is to stir social change and to ensure the conservation of the change. Nonetheless, in Russia, individuals believed that the law could delay change if it’s meant to benefit a few individuals in society. Hence, people may be forced to continually fight against the same law that should be formulated to protect them. In Russia, the constitution was written down, yet it did not constitute freedom as people’s rights were violated. Therefore, formulating the law, writing down as well as enforcing the law will lead to social change. The law is not an ideology to be documented but to be executed and ensure that the people understood the consequences of violation. Legitimization of the rule is the ability to command compliance amongst the people. The wealth of the people should not influence the justice system hence defiling the constitution. In many instances, social change is not enabled as the wealthy are more likely to lose from such enforcements. For Example, a progressive tax would mean the redistribution of wealth in society. Hence, the wealthy class will prevent social change to occur, protecting themselves from the law. Therefore, social justice demands that we go beyond the legal and political fights to create equality in goods and power.

Chapter 12: Women and the Law

Alice Porter was fired from her job for excessive absenteeism and poor work performance. The truth was that she got pregnant and was deemed as not being productive in the workplace. Alice was given a maternity leave, which was still accounted for as one of her vacation time. The child was born with minor health problems, forcing Alice to take a little more time to tend to the child. Her absenteeism at work was negatively translated by the employer, who immediately fired Alice. The law had no clear policies on Alice’s case, and she was forced to stay without work and a sick newborn baby to take care. Alice was a single mother as the husband had left, and the children’s welfare was a concern, her ability to raise her babies. If Alice were living in a democratic country, she would have been guaranteed maternity leave and salary to take care of her needs. Poverty is something that the women had to fight with, as they were fired for getting pregnant. The men are advantaged in society as they don’t have to take unnecessary breaks from employment to give birth or take care of sick children. Therefore, the women needed protection under the law.

Feminism has taken center stage in society where people try to understand institutions and the social changes that have been permitted, favorable for women. Patriarchy is a term used to mean a male-dominated social system which undesirable in the current society. The early Greek society was sensitive to women as the creation story starts with the existence of an earth goddess who ruled overall, and few men held power. Nonetheless, some tales in society justified the supremacy of men. For Example, the homers tale dated 800 BCE featured the women as servants, baby-makers. The wealthy men also regarded women as instruments of pleasure after a long day at work. Thus, the role of women in society has been misrepresented by many people. Cicero believed that the place of a woman was at home taking care of the children. Amongst the poor, the law on the women was much more manageable, yet life was more challenging as they had to take care of the children and work at the same time. The role of the church in enforcing the law against women was manifested. The women were encouraged to go to a church where their duties to society were taught repetitively until they submitted to their husbands.

In the nineteenth century, women began fighting for their rights. For Example, the women could be forced to have babies that they never desired as the law did not allow for abortion or contraceptives. Therefore, the women had to fight for their rights to vote to change many of the policies that worked against them. Others wanted to acquire a decent education and have the right to opportunities. The common law believed that women were not fully functional; married women were regarded as one with their husbands. Hence, the husband functioning in the system was said to benefit the marriage. Matilda Joslyn was a women activist, and she helped form a campaign to separate the church from the State. Hence, the church’s laws were not directly to be applied to the State without proper consideration. Women were debated to be subjected to rape and other vices because they were not regarded as equals under the law. Therefore, physical and sexual abuse in marriage was considered a violation of human rights. The Supreme Court also order a review of the gender and the roles that they had in society, hence permitting them to work. Women were required to be represented in the legal system, and abuse against women was regarded as biasness. The equal rights movements were formed across the country to enforce women representation in different sectors of the economy.

Multi-Touch Screens vs. Mouse-Driven Screens

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Comparison and contrast between the metaphors used in the design of applications that run on all devices using either multi-touch computer monitor or a mouse-driven computer monitor

First, the desktop metaphors of the multi-touch computer monitor are more modern as compare to that of the mouse driven computer monitor which can be considered backward technology for this case. The metaphors in the multi-touch screen responds to screen touch directed on a particular metaphor when activating a given action. On the other hand, the metaphors on the mouse-driven computer monitor responds to a mouse click on the specified metaphor by the user. Both of these monitors have their merit and demerits.

The advantage of multi-touch computer monitor is that the task of invoking a metaphor command is done by simply pointing that particular metaphor which actually takes a shorter time. Invoking metaphor for an action in mouse driven monitor is a little bit slower since it involves moving a mouse, pointing on the metaphor in question and then clicking it. This means that touch screen is easy to use as compared to mouse driven monitor.

The disadvantage of multi-touch computer monitor is that using screen touch to open the properties of a given desktop or laptop icons/metaphors can be very challenging as the action known by many is only that which is equivalent to clicking and double clicking in mouse driven monitor. Checking or opening properties window of any icon on screen appear to be simpler using a mouse-driven monitor through right clicking a metaphor and selecting properties from the popup menu.

Nevertheless, both these two monitors were designed using the principle of user centered design which is used by many software developers. However, the idea of user centered design may not add value to either of the system as this principle does not put in to an account the activity centered design, that is, what the system is exactly supposed to do. As an example, one may ask what a user gain by using multi-touch screen in terms of activity. The truth of the matter is that they are designed to do the same activity but only using different type of interface. This means that if multi-touch screen design is meant to add a different activity that is not possible with mouse driven monitor, then it will be very much reasonable. In other words, the two kinds of applications are only different in the way users interact with the system but similar in terms of the work they are expected to do. Therefore, in the process of redesigning applications to run on all devices I will use both user centered design and activity centered design as away of reducing the limitations of the applications (Norman, 2005).

The following figure (A) shows an example of multi-touch interface with arrows showing the guide to interaction gestures. The next diagram, that is, figure (B), shows the mouse driven interface showing how a mouse can be used to complete an action of repeating the command that was previously undone. The action is completed by simply moving the mouse on the surface of the screen, pointing on the target command/icon as shown bellow and then clicking on it.

A: Multi-touch interface

B: Mouse driven interface

Difference between the interaction types and styles that apply to these monitors and applications running on them

In fact, the applications running on the two types of systems can be the same although multi-touch screen in most cases use mobile based application software. The multi-touch screen response to the user is based on sensing ability to sense the angle at which the user’s angle touches the screen in relation to the surface of the screen. This does not apply in mouse driven monitor where the response only take place on mouse clicks of item on the screen. In multi-touch screen, the user can also exploit the friction amid his/her finger and the screen in order to apply several force vectors as long as one is in contact with the screen. This is not possible with the mouse driven monitor. The multi-touch monitor also has higher potential for rich interaction as compared to mouse driven monitors since it uses high degree of contact rather than pressure which has aside effect when hard pushing using finger tips is involved like the case of mouse clicks. This simplifies to saying that interaction with multi-touch monitors is easy and simpler than that of mouse driven monitor (Buxton, 2007).

The interaction using mouse driven monitor is also slightly more accurate, especially for smaller target selection on screen. In addition, mouse driven interaction is extra efficient when measured by throughput as compared to digital tabletop. The multi-touch table interaction can also be a workable or feasible option to mouse input provided that suitable provisions for adjustment of size of target are made. Therefore, the efficiency of the multi-touch monitor is lower for screens with smaller target size. The target design elements within the user interface ought to have size that is larger than 30mm for better performance, considering the horizontal touch surfaces. IF this target size is achieved, then the time taken to complete a given task will exceed mouse depending on performance for similar tasks. As a result, the selection and completion models that are mouse based can be employed to offer the task completion of the upper bound (Micire, 2010).

Description of the conceptual model employed in the design of these types of applications

The business process modeling tools of contemporary type offers menu based user interfaces that can be used to define and visualize process models. The menu based interactions are maximized for applications that run on desktop computers. Therefore, mouse driven monitors which are also used in desktops can use business process contemporary conceptual model. This type of model is very limited on multi-touch monitor applications. On the other hand, the extensive use of mobile devices on the day to day operations of business together with their multi-touch potentials provides hopeful viewpoints for the intuitive definition and altering of the process models. In addition, multi-touch promotes the use of collaborative business process modeling that relies on natural together with intuitive gestures plus interactions (Kolb, Rudner & Reichert, 2013).

Description of analogies and concepts exposed by these monitors to users, including the task-domain objects users manipulate on the screen.

Both the multi-touch monitors and mouse driven monitors are similar in a number of ways. First, both have interfaces that are designed based on human centered design principle. In both cases, the users can be able to complete tasks such as document creation, saving, information retrieval as well as sending of the created file to a different recipient online. The user can also be able to edit a created document in both cases though using different methods of interaction. There is also the task of switching on and off the device before and after usage which are also done using different interfaces by users. In both cases, users also explore the application of graphical user interface to perform a given task like the surfing through the internet.

Most of the selection gestures made by the multi-touch monitor are roughly analogous to that of the mouse click performed within the window of user interface interaction. Matejka et al. (2009) cited in (Micire, 2010) reported the successful emulation of mouse on the platform of multi-touch monitor by means of simple and stylish heuristics associated with finger tracking. As an example, the dragging analogy of items from one area of the screen to another is ubiquitously employed in the system of Windows Input Mouse and Pull down Menus (WIMP) interface interactions (Micire, 2010).

References

Buxton, B. (2007). Multi-touch systems that I have known and loved. Microsoft Research, 56, 1-11.

Kolb, J., Rudner, B., & Reichert, M. (2013). Gesture-based Process Modeling Using Multi-Touch Devices. International Journal of Information System Modeling and Design, 4(4), 48-69.

Micire, M. J. (2010). Multi-touch interaction for robot command and control. MASSACHUSETTS UNIV LOWELL.

Norman, D. (2005). Human-centered design considered dangerous. Retrieved from http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/humancentered_desig.html

International students have cultures and practices that may affect their eating habits regardless of the lifestyle influence in Australia. However, there may be some facets that may affect their eating habits both positively and negatively. This research seeks to find out whether a food related lifestyle model predicts healthy eating behaviours of international students studying in Australia. One can use a theoretical framework such as the food related lifestyle model to understand the factors influencing the food choices of international students studying in Australian. Grunert, Bruns and Bisp (1993) put forth the idea of a food-related lifestyle model that explained food consumption. The model identified ways to categorise those influences on the behaviour of food consumption. The categories are ‘use situations’, concrete attributes’, ‘quality considerations’, ‘shopping and meal preparation’, ‘perceived consequences’, and ‘values’ (Grunert, Bruns & Bisp 1993). By considering this construct and in particular the social norms of international students in Australia the research study will hope to identify those values and influences that shape individual eating habits of the population and evaluate it to see how it has been influenced and changed if at all.

Research QuestionHow has studying in Australia affected your diet? Using a food related lifestyle model the study will investigate the effects of living in Australia on International students’ diets.

Aims and HypothesesThe purpose of the study is to provide information as to the influences that shape international students eating habits while studying in Australia. It is expected that this study will be a directional one based upon the research literature as the outcomes will follow that which has already been determined (Creswell 2009).

HypothesesH1: Food related lifestyles and beliefs significantly influence healthy eating behaviours amongst international students.

Methods and TechniquesStudy DesignThe study took the form of a cross sectional study also known as a transversal study. This type of study involves studying a section of a population under study (Creswell 2009). The section thus chosen has to be well representative of the whole population and thus results emanating thereof can be said to provide a picture of the whole population (Curall & Tower 2003). The study adopted the quantitive approach for data collection and analysis. The method was ideal due to the logical and systematic way that it prescribes for data collection (Curral & Tower, 2003). The options it offers in terms of tabulation, graphing and other forms of data analysis makes it give more options for data interpretation and analysis. Being a positivist approach, it helps in data analysis whether a researcher is inductive or like in this case deductive, (Creswell, Trout and Barbuto 2004). The study’s aim being to profile the eating habits of international students in Australia, it required methodical and exhaustive data exploration and measuring techniques and the qualitative method sufficed as sufficient. A questionnaire was applied by the researcher to collect data. The questionnaire was well thought out so as to get all round information and to minimise the time taken to answer the questions. The research took the form of a cross sectional survey also known as a transversal or prevalence study which is a descriptive study. This means that the researcher identified a subset of the whole population that could be said to be representative of the whole group (Kraus 2005). The questionnaire comprised both open and closed format questions with one inferential question.

Participants and RecruitmentThe researcher sought to identify international students at Flinders University and did this through the assistance of friends. Once identified the researcher found ways in which they could meet up with the student and plan a time and place for the interview. There being different categories among international students, e.g. by sex, year of study, level of study etc. the researcher invested time to study targeted respondents so as to ensure that all these categories were incorporated into the study thus making the subset well representative. Convenience sampling which involves picking respondents from the available group and stratification which involves dividing up a group into strata of homogenic characteristics (Devane et al 2004) were the tools that helped the researcher overcome this challenge Data CollectionThe survey investigated the behaviours and customs of the subset to identify traits. The questionnaire was the chosen mode of data collection. This was ideal due to the scarcity of time and the researchers over insistence on the need not to inconvenience the respondents more than necessary. The other reason for the questionnaire being the most ideal mode of data collection is the need to rate the answers on different levels and this method has been proven to be simple, quick in administration and easy to analyse (Creswell 2009). The questions took both the open and closed format. The data thus collected was analysed using SPSS version 16 and the results presented in graphical, tabular and arithmetic formats. The questions were designed to draw as much feedback as possible on the eating habits of international students and were descriptive in nature. There was one question which was inferential and it was aimed at establishing the respondents’ beliefs. The multiple choice format and Likert based scales which is a preferred method for determining ranking of answers (Huck 2008, in Creswell 2009) were used. The questions were set with the assistance of findings from previous studies and the questionnaire was self administered. The questionnaire was constructed with the the eventual purpose of analysis in mind. The input of the course supervisor was priceless and the multiple choices were double checked to ensure that they capture all necessary aspects of the research. Care was taken to use only positive statements and was in easy to understand language and was checked for grammatical errors, spelling and punctuation to ensure all respondents understood it in the same manner (De vaus, 2002) The return rate for the Questionnaire was 100% since it was self administered.

Data analysisThe data collected was analysed using computer based software (SPSS version 19 in particular). The data was presented using statistical tools like tables and in arithmetic form for the hypothesis test.

References

Erdosh, G. 1994. Start and run a profitable catering business from thyme to timing: your step-by-step business plan. North Vancouver, B.C., Self-Counsel Press.

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Fullen, S. L. 2005. Opening a restaurant or other food business starter kit: how to prepare a restaurant business plan & feasibility study : with companion CD-ROM. Ocala, Fla, Atlantic Pub. Group

Forsyth, P. 2002. Business planning. Oxford, Capstone Pub. http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=121434.

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Harrison, B. F. 1983. How to be a successful outside caterer. Chester (Mouldsworth House, Chapel Lane, Mouldsworth, Chester CH3 8AP), Manley.

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Ketterer, M. 1991. How to manage a successful catering business. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold.

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Mintel International Group Ltd. 2000. The catering business. London, Mintel International Group Ltd.

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Chapter 11 question 11.

When saving for a retirement plan, it would be better if the person saves 1,000 dollars every year for their retirement account rather than wait for a period of 10 years and put 10,000 dollars all at once. There will be much difference in the long run between the two individuals as the amount at the end will not be the same.

One of the reasons as to why there will be a significant difference is that the social security fund’s benefits are calculated by a formula based on an individual’s lifetime contributions. And this means that that person who has contributed for a ten-year duration is expected to have more money in their account as they have a longer time duration. On the other hand, the person who waits until the tenth year and saves the money in a lump sum will only have their time duration as one year, and this means that they will have the same amount at the end.

Besides the calculation of the social security based on the number of years of contribution, there also different economic periods in the country and this means that there will fluctuations based on the dollar value. Interest is earned yearly, and the social security funds revolve in a compound interest rate, and therefore if the dollar value increases by some time, the interest will be calculated according to the dollar value at the time. And this means that at the end of the ten years grace period the individual will have a considerable amount in their account compared to the person who saves the 10,000 dollars at the end of the ten year period.

Chapter 12: Question 7.

The United States government produces billions of dollars in banknotes and coins for use in everyday transactions, but despite this, currency alone does not represent money creations. The main reason behind is that money is created when the financial institutions accept deposits and make loans. The financial institutions which are the banks act as a bridge between the borrowers and savers creating a demand for money while on the other side the supply is provided by the banks.

The banks’ ability to make loans, which is also the ability to create money is limited to a certain percentage of its total customer deposit implying that if the bank has a large customer deposit, they will have a higher chance of providing out loans that are responsible for the money creations. When giving out loans, a certain percentage of their total deposit in reserves while the rest is lent out beginning the process of money creation. Therefore, the printing of money in billions of dollars or the currency alone does not contribute to money creations.

Mental models according to Charlie Munger refer to an individual’s perception of the real world by use of concepts and beliefs and how it relates to the actual real world. Mental models are always mainly abstract due to the complexity of the world and it thus requires constant refreshing and acquisition of different mental models with the changing times. Munger advances the idea that investors and managers need to have big ideas acquired from different big disciplines in order to improve their businesses.

Having a latticework of mental models, as Munger suggests, has proved beneficial in making correct business choices. The ability of having knowledge from different fields enables one have a clear understanding of the business industry. One does not need to fully grasp a discipline as that may prove tedious. One only takes the major principles from different disciplines and tries to relate them for any patterns of similarity. This enables you to see opportunities where others cannot and how best to hedge risks. It also pre-empts the possibility of one only using one method to solve all problems which can prove fatalistic in a rapidly changing business environment.

During the last year, I had two friends who wanted to invest in stocks in a local automobile company. However they seemed fixated on the idea of investing in stocks without doing a thorough check on the company’s performance in the stock market, its last annual report and overall projections on the company’s growth over the coming years. I sat them down and explained to them in detail how best to invest in stocks. In the end, they were able to make an informed choice and chose a fast growing aviation company instead of the loss making and mismanaged automobile company. This experience taught me a valuable lesson about having a circle of competence before making a critical decision as it will ensure you make a well informed decision.

In my above example, I was able to help my friends due to my knowledge in the stocks market. This was because I had taken a keen interest in this field and thus was able to garner considerable knowledge that helped my friends make the right choice. Different ways can be used to enable people develop new mental models. Firstly, a culture should be fostered in a business environment where individuals are encouraged to be open minded to new ideas. Businesses should also actively encourage staffers to further their education by doing Masters or acquiring new skills in different fields of expertise. This opens individual’s eyes further. New mental models can also be developed by learning from mistakes in the past and develop new ways of solving the problem. This can be done by “inverting the problem” which means weeding out its root cause. This solves the problem by avoiding and thus helps in business growth.

References

Hagstrom, R. G. (2013). Investing: The last liberal art. Columbia University Press.Mauboussin, M. J. (2013). More Than You Know: Finding Financial Wisdom in Unconventional Places (Updated and Expanded). Columbia University Press.